HISTORY OF MATH REVIEWER
mathematical system there will always be
BIRTH OF SET THEORY AND PROBLEMS
IN THE FOUNDATIONS OF
MATHEMATICS
Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic
that studies set, which can be informally
described as collections of objects.
A set is any collection of objects specified in such
a way that we can determine whether a given
object is or is not in the collection. In other words
A set is a collection of objects. These objects are
called elements or members of the set.
Set theory originated in the late 1873 work of
Georg Cantor
Georg Cantor,
- Georg Cantor was a Russian – born
mathematician who can be considered as a
founder of set theory.
- Introduced the concept of infinite
numbers with his discovery of cardinal
numbers
- He also advanced the study of
trigonometric series.
- a German mathematician, made
pioneering contributions to set theory.
- In the 1870s and 1880s, Cantor developed
the concept of sets and explored the idea
of different infinities, introducing the
revolutionary notion of "transfinite"
numbers.
Richard Dedekind,
- a German mathematician, independently
worked on foundational aspects of set
theory.
- Dedekind introduced the concept of
"Dedekind cuts" to define real numbers,
contributing to the formalization of the
real number system and the
understanding of sets.
- His best known contribution is the
definition of real numbers through the
notion of Dedekind cut.
- He is also considered a pioneer in the
development of modern set theory and of
the philosophy of mathematics known as
Logicism.
Kurt Godel
- In 1931, the Austrian logician Kurt Gödel
published his incompleteness theorem, a
result widely considered one of the
greatest intellectual achievements of
modern times.
- The theorem states that in any reasonable
true statements that cannot be proved.
Paul Cohen
- Paul J. Cohen, born April 2, 1934, in Long
Branch, N.J., received the Fields Medal in
1966.
- He earned this prestigious award for
proving the independence of the
continuum hypothesis from other set
theory axioms.
Ernst Zermelo & Braham Fraenkel
- Proposed by mathematicians Ernst
Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel in the
early 20th century.
- It's an axiomatic system designed to create
a consistent theory of sets without the
paradoxes encountered in early set theory,
like Russell's paradox.
Russell's Paradox and Its Implications
Russell's Paradox, discovered by Bertrand Russell
in 1901, questioned the consistency of set theory.
The paradox arises when considering sets that do
not contain themselves, leading to logical
contradictions and prompting a reevaluation of
the foundations.
DEVELOPMENT OF AXIOMATIC
SYSTEMS (ZERMELO-FRAENKEL SET
THEORY).
- To address foundational issues,
mathematicians developed axiomatic
systems that provide a formal framework
for set theory.
- Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, formulated
in the early 20th century, became a widely
accepted axiomatic foundation, addressing
some of the issues raised by Russell's
Paradox.
WHAT DO MATHEMATICIAN DO?
- To address foundational issues,
mathematicians developed axiomatic
systems that provide a formal framework
for set theory
- Their work leads to the development of
new theories, models, and algorithms that
have practical applications and contribute
to technological innovations.
- Mathematicians help society by providing
rigorous analyses and critical thinking
skills that aid in decision-making, policy
development, and problem-solving in
diverse domains.

Duties and responsibilities of mathematician
- 1. Research and Analysis:
Mathematicians engage in in-depth
research and analysis to explore
mathematical concepts, develop new
theories, and solve complex problems.
- 2. Problem Solving: Mathematicians
are skilled problem solvers. They apply
mathematical principle and techniques to
address practical problems in various
fields such as science, engineering, finance
and technology.
- 3. Theoretical Development:
Mathematicians contribute to the
development of mathematical theories and
frameworks. They formulate conjectures,
create mathematical proofs, and refine
existing theories to advance mathematical
knowledge and understanding.
- 4. Collaboration and
Communication: Mathematicians often
collaborate with other researchers,
scientists and professionals in
interdisciplinary projects. They participate
in academic conferences, publish research
papers and present their findings to
mathematical community and broader
audiences.
- 5. Teaching and Mentoring: Many
mathematicians also engage in teaching
and mentoring roles. They may supervise
research projects, guide students in their
mathematical studies, and inspire the next
generation of mathematics.
Types of Mathematician
 Pure Mathematician - They
focus on the theoretical aspects of
mathematics. They explore abstract
concepts and develop new mathematical
theories, proofs, and structures. Their
work often involves areas such as number
theory, algebra, geometry, analysis and
topology.
 Applied Mathematician - They use
mathematical principles and techniques to
solve real-world problems. They work in
interdisciplinary fields, collaborating with
scientists, engineers and professionals in
areas such as physics, computer science,
economics, finance, and engineering.
 Mathematical Physicist - sophisticated, and its potential seemed to
Mathematical physicists study the
mathematical foundations of physical
phenomena. Mathematical physicists play
a crucial role in developing mathematical
frameworks to explain and understand the
laws of nature.
 Financial Quantitative Analyst -
Financial quantitative analyst or quants
work in the finance industry using
mathematical models and statistical
techniques to develop investment
strategies, analyze market trends and
assess financial risk.
 Data Scientist - Data Scientists analyze
and interpret large datasets to extract
insights and make data-driven decisions
 Actuary - Actuary assess and manage
risks in insurance and finance industries.
They use mathematical models and
statistical methods to evaluate
probabilities, forecast financial outcomes,
and design insurance policies.
 Operation Research Analyst -
Operations research analysts use
mathematical modeling and optimization
techniques to solve complex problems in
business, logistics, supply chain
management and decision-making
processes.
 Cryptographer - Cryptographers
specialize in the field of cryptography,
which involves the design and analysis of
secure communication systems and
encryption algorithms.
 Statistician - Statisticians specialize in
the field of statistics, which involves
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting
data. They develop statistical models and
methods to study and draw meaningful
conclusions from data sets.
Infallibility & Certainty Mathematics
Infallibility (by H. Poincaré)
- Poincaré begins Mathematical Invention
by pondering some very interesting
questions:
- “How is it that there are people who do
not understand mathematics?”
- “How is error possible in mathematics
Ventana Al Conociemento
- Mathematics was the language on which
all these advances were sustained; it was
becoming more and more precise and
be endless. However, in the last decades of
the century, serious doubts began to
 emerge within this field, many of them
related to an elusive concept that scientists
had been shunning for centuries: infinity.
Math and Certainty
John Stuart Mill (1808 1873)
- claimed that our certainty in mathematics
arises from a vast number of empirical
observations (correspondence theory)
- However maths is also based on proving
theorems without prior experience
- The Empirical Argument
Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-
1776)
- If you conclude that maths is not
empirical, you might think of it as being
analytic.
- This suggests that maths is a truth that
simply exists ‘out there’. Any
mathematical operation is therefore
simply ‘unpacking the truth.
- The Analytic Argument
Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804),
- If we decide that maths is neither
empirical or analytic, we might conclude
that it is therefore synthetic a priori, i.e.
knowledge that is found to be true through
observation, yet exists independently of
experience
- The Synthetic a Prior Argument
 Analytic proposition - true by
definition
• Synthetic proposition- any proposition
that is not Analytic
•A proposition is said to be knowable a
priori if it can be known to be true
independent of experience.
• A proposition is said to be knowable a
posteriori if it cannot be known to be true
independent of experience
THE CONCEPTS AND ROLE OF THE
PROOF
A proof is a rhetorical device for
convincing another mathematician that a
given statement (the theorem) is true.
Thus a proof can take many different
forms. The most traditional form of
mathematical proof is that it is a tightly
knit sequence of statements linked
together by strict rules of logic.
The role: A proof serves to convince or
justify that a certain statement is true. But
it also helps to increase the understanding
of the result and the related concepts. That
is why a proof.
PYTHAGORAS
- A greek mathematician •associated with
the pythagorean theorem, a² + b² = c² ,
describing the relationship between the
sides of a right-angled triangle
EUCLID
- he was a Greek mathematician who is
considered to be the "father of geometry, "
•Authored "Elements, " a comprehensive
compilation of knowledge covering
geometry, number theory, and
mathematical logic. •Developed the
systematic approach to mathematical
proof, organizing the material into
definitions, axioms, postulates, and
propositions. •Established Euclidean
geometry as the standard for centuries.
•Introduced the axiomatic method,
starting with self-evident truths and
building a logical structure of theorems.
•Proofs in "Elements" are deductive,
relying on previously proven results and
axioms.
EUDOXUS and the concept of
theorem
- initiated the tradition of organizing
mathematics into theorems and was
among the first to use the term "theorem"
in a mathematical context. he
demonstrated proficiency in astronomy
and number theory. he developed the
theory of proportions, expanded on
Pythagorean ideas, and introduced
methods to compare irrational numbers.
His method of exhaustion, a precursor to
modern integration theory in calculus,
facilitated calculations of areas and
volumes.
The golden age of the 19th century
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-
1830) - developed the seminal ideas for
Fourier series and created the first formula for
the expansion of an arbitrary function into a
trigonometric series. He developed
applications to the theory of heat.
Evariste Galois (1812-1832) and
Augustin Louis-Cauchy (1789-1857) -
 laid the foundations for abstract algebra by
inventing group theory.
Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866) -
established the subject of differential
geometry, defined the version of the integral
(from calculus) that we use today, and made
profound contributions to complex variable
theory and Fourier analysis.
Augustin-Louis Cauchy laid the
foundations of complex variable the- ory and
partial differential equations. He also did seminal
work in geometric analysis.
Carl Jacobi (1804-1851), Ernst Kummer
(1810-1893). Niels Henrick Abel (1802-
1829), and numerous other mathematicians
from many countries developed number theory.
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813),
Cauchy and others were laying the foundations of
the calculus of variations, classical mechanics, the
implicit function theorem, and many other
important ideas in modern geometric analysis.
Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) laid the
foundations for rigorous analysis with numerous
examples and theorems. He made seminal
contributions both to real and to complex
analysis.
L. E. J. Brouwer, a Dutch mathematician in the
early 20th century, made significant contributions
to topology, particularly with his groundbreaking
"Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem." This theorem
states that any continuous function mapping a
closed unit disc to itself must have a fixed point.
Errett Bishop- a prominent mathematician in
the 1950s and 1960s, gained renown for his
ingenious proofs regarding the structure of
function spaces, often employing proofs by
contradiction. In his book, "Methods of
Constructive Analysis, " Bishop developed the key
ideas of mathematical analysis without relying on
proofs by contradiction, pioneering the field of
"constructive analysis." His notable assertion that
"mathematics belongs to man, not to God" reflects
his commitment to constructive mathematics,
emphasizing proofs that are not only convincing
but also constructive in nature.
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
Greek Geometry was the first example of a
deductive system with axioms, theorems, and
proofs.
- Greek Geometry was thought of as an
idealized model of the real world.
- Euclid (c. 330-275 BC) was the great
expositor of Greek mathematics who
brought together the work of generations
in a book for the ages.
Non-Euclidean Geometry
- The study of geometry on surfaces which
are not flat.
- Any geometry that is not the same as
Euclidean.
- Can be seen by drawing lines on a sphere
or other object.
Non-Euclidean Geometry Categorized into
2 Types
HYPERBOLIC GEOMETRY
- Two parallel lines are taken to converge in
one direction and diverge in the other.
Beltrami-Klein model
- In the Beltrami-Klein model, also called
projective model is the hyperbolic surface
is mapped to the interior of a circle, with
geodesics in the hyperbolic surface
corresponding to chords in the circle.
Poincare Disk Model
- It is also called the conformal disk model.
- It is a model of 2-dimensional hyperbolic
geometry in which all points are inside the
unit disk and straight lines are either
circular arcs contained within the disk that
are orthogonal to the unit circle or
diameters of the unit circle.
Poincare half-plane model
- It is a model of the hyperbolic plane. It
consists of the points in the complex upper
half-plane, but it has a non-standard arc
length element (which leads to a non-
Euclidean distance metric.
Lorentz or Hyperboloid model
- It employs a 2-dimensional hyperboloid of
revolution embedded in 3-dimensional
Minkowski space.
Elliptic GEOMETRY
- It is the geometry of the sphere (then 2-
dimensional surface of a 3 dimensional
solid ball), where congruence
transformations are the rotations of the
sphere about its center.
Model for Elliptic Geometry
- Any pair of lines must intersect.
- Saccheri Hypothesis is angles c and d are
obtuse
- Angle sum of a triangle is greater than pi.
 - God created the integers, all else is work of
EUCLIDIAN vs. NON-EUCLIDIAN man
- 19th century
• Euclidean Geometry seeks to - German
understand the geometry of flat, two - Humans invented everything based off
dimensional spaces, Non-Euclidean numbers
geometry studies curved, rather than flat
surfaces. Although Euclidean geometry
is useful in many fields, in some cases,
Non-Euclidean Geometry may be more
useful.
MODERN ALGEBRA AND NUMBER
THEORY
WAS MATH INVENTED OR
WHAT IS ALGEBRA - The word “algebra”
DISCOVERED?
means many things. • The word dates back about
1200 years ago to part of the title of Al-
2 TYPES OF BELIEVERS Khw¯arizm¯ı’s book on the subject, but the
subject itself goes back4000 years ago to ancient
Platonist/ Realist Babylonia and Egypt. • It was about solving
- Those who believe that math exists numerical problems that we would now identify
independently of humans. as linear and quadratic equations. Versions of the
- Discovered quadratic formula were used to find solutions to
- Would exist even if humans did not those quadratic equations.
1500S - Symbolic algebra was developed - has
Nominalist/ Non-Platonist symbols for the arithmetic operations of addition,
- Math was created by humans subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and
roots as well as symbols for grouping expressions
- Invented
(such as parentheses), and most importantly,
- Like a “ language”/creation of human
used letters for variables.
culture. 1600S - Algebra become more flourished.
Coordinates, analytic geometry, and calculus with
Why could it be considered as discovered? derivatives, integrals, and series were developed
- Math is found by nature; there are in that century
patterns everywhere
- Fractals HISTORY -During the second half of the 19th
- Fibonacci’s sequence- discovered trough century, various important mathematical
rabbit population growth advances led to the study of sets in which any two
- Numbers- 1 object + another = more than elements can be added or multiplied together to
1 object give a third element of the same set. The elements
of the sets concerned could be numbers,
functions, or some other objects. As the
INVENTED?
techniques involved were similar, it seemed
- Language of Science reasonable to consider the sets, rather than their
- Make mathematics to make our lives elements, to be the objects of primary concern. A
easier (to suit our purpose) definitive treatise, Modern Algebra, was written in
- Units of measurement 1930 by the Dutch mathematician Bartel van der
- If we fail to create something, we find new Waerden, and the subject has had a deep effect on
ways of improving our creations. almost every branch of mathematics.
- Technology
MODERN ALGEBRA - also called abstract
PLATO algebra, branch of mathematics concerned with
- Platonist the general algebraic structure of various sets
- Ancient Greece (such as real numbers, complex numbers,
matrices, and vector space), rather than rules and
- Numbers were concrete
procedures for manipulating their individual
- Real regardless of our knowledge
elements.
-
LEOPARD KRONECKER
FRANCOIS VIETE (1540-1603) - Lawyer,
French Mathematician, Astronomer and advisor
to King Henri III & IV. • Father of Modern
Algebra • Focused on algebraic equations in his
mathematical writings. • He used letters as
symbols for quantities, both known and unknown.
ÉVARISTE GALOIS (1811-1832)- Galois is
renowned for his work on group theory and Galois
theory. He developed a profound understanding
of the solvability of polynomial equations, which
eventually led to the foundation of Galois theory,
a fundamental concept in modern algebra.
NIELS HENRIK ABEL (1802-1829) - Group
theory, Solvability of polynomial equation
RICHARD DEDEKIND (1831-1916) -
Number theory and algebraic number theory. He
introduced the concept of ideal.
DAVID HILBERT (1862-19430)- He made a
substantial contributions to the development of
axiomatic systems in algebra. His 23 Problems set
the agenda for 20th-century mathematics. His
work on invariant theory and field theory had a
significant impact on algebra.
EMMY NOETHER (1882-1935)- She was
known for Noether's theorem. She made a major
contributions to ring theory, group theory, and
abstract algebra in general.
ANDRÉ WEIL (1906-1998) - Renowned for
his work on number theory and algebraic
geometry. He played a crucial role in the
development of algebraic number theory,
introducing the concept of adeles and idele.
SERGE LANG (1927-2005)- He made a
contributions to various areas of algebra,
including number theory and algebraic geometry.
His work includes contributions to Diophantine
geometry, transcendental number theory, and
modular forms.
ALEXANDER GROTHENDIECK (1928-
2014) - He was a pioneer in category theory and
homological algebra. He revolutionized algebraic
geometry by developing schemes and the theory
of motives.
JOHN THOMPSON (1932-2020)- He was
awarded the Fields Medal for his work in finite
group theory. He is known for proving
Thompson's theorem and his contributions to the
classification of finite simple groups.
NUMBER THEORY - Number theory, also
known as 'higher arithmetic' , is one of the oldest
branches of mathematics and is used to study the
properties of positive integers. It helps to study
the relationship between different types of
numbers such as prime numbers, rational
numbers, and algebraic integers. In the mid-20s,
the number theory was considered as one of the
purest forms of mathematics, until digital
computers proved that this theory can provide
answers to real-world problems.
DEFINITION OF NUMBER THEORY- The
definition of number theory states that it is a
branch of pure mathematics devoted to the study
of natural numbers and integers. It is the study of
the set of positive whole numbers usually called
the set of natural numbers. This theory is
experimental and theoretical. While the
experimental number theory leads to questions
and suggests different ways to answer them, the
theoretical number theory tries to provide a
definite answer by solving it. Theoretically,
numbers are classified into different types, such
as natural numbers, whole numbers, complex
numbers, and so on.
EUCLID (C. 300 BC)- Euclid's "Elements"
included the first known proof of the infinitude of
prime numbers. It was laid to the foundation for
much of number theory.
PIERRE-SIMON LAPLACE (1749-1827) - He
made significant contributions to probability
theory and number theory. He introduced the
concept of generating functions in number theory.
CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777-1855) -
Gauss is often called the "Prince of
Mathematicians. " His work on number theory
includes the law of quadratic reciprocity and his
work on modular arithmetic and congruences.
PETER GUSTAV LEJEUNE DIRICHLET
(1805-1859) - Dirichlet made important
contributions to number theory. Introduced
Dirichlet's Theorem on arithmetic progressions,
which has applications in the distribution of
primes
LEONARD ADLEMAN (1945) - He was a
computer scientist and mathematician. Co-
inventor of the RSA encryption algorithm.
ANDREW WILES (1953)- Wiles is famous for
proving Fermat's Last Theorem, a long-standing
conjecture that had puzzled mathematicians for
centuries
PIERRE DELIGNE (1944)- Known for his
work in algebraic number theory, and the proof of
the Weil conjectures, which have deep
connections to algebraic geometry and number
theory.

KEN RIBET (1948) - Ribet is known for

proving a critical step in Wiles's proof of Fermat's
Last Theorem. His work established the link
between elliptic curves and modular forms.

GODFREY HAROLD HARDY (1877-1947)

AND JOHN LITTLEWOOD (1885-1977)-
Hardy and Littlewood made important
contributions to analytic number theory,
including the famous HardyLittlewood
Conjectures.

SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN (1887-1920) -

Ramanujan was a self-taught Indian
mathematician. He made some numerous
groundbreaking discoveries in number theory,
including remarkable results related to partitions,
modular forms, and theta functions.

NUMBER THEORY SUB-CLASSIFICATION

- ODD NUMBERS, EVEN NUMBERS SQUARE
NUMBERS CUBE NUMBERS PRIME NUMBERS
COMPOSITE NUMBERS FIBONACCI NUMBER

ODD NUMBERS - odd numbers are those that

are not divisible by the number 2. Numbers like 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and so on are considered as
odd numbers. On the number line, 1 is considered
as the first positive odd number.
EVEN NUMBERS - Even numbers are integers
that are divisible by the number 2. For example,
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and so on are even
numbers.

SQUARE NUMBERS- A square number or

perfect square is an integer that is the square of
an integer. For example, in 3 × 3 = 9, 9 is a square
number. Similarly, 1, 4, 9, 16, and so on are
square numbers.

CUBE NUMBERS- Numbers that are multiplied

by themselves 3 times are called cube numbers.
For example, 27 is a cube number because 3 × 3 ×
3 = 27. Similarly, 1, 8, 64 are cube numbers.