JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF JUSTICE

RESEARCH PAPER
SUBMITTED N THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR'S OF ARTS IN PHILOSOPHY
SUBMITTED BY-: SAHIL
GK5013
21PYBAA658
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
DR. ABDUL SHAKIL
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH
(2023-24)

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 CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT RESEARCH PAPER ENTITLED 'JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF

JUSTICE’ SUBMITTED BY SAHIL (FACULTY NO. 21PYBAA658) (ENROLLMENT NO.
GK5013) IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN PHILOSOPHY AT THE DEPARTMENT OF
PHILOSOPHY, AMU, ALIGARH IS HER OWN WORK UNDER MY SUPERVISION.
THE MATTER IN THIS RESEARCH PAPER HAS NOT SUBMITTED TO ANY OTHER
UNIVERSITY OR INSTITUTE FOR THE AWARD OF ANY DEGREE.

SAHIL DR. ABDUL SHAKIL

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF PHILOSOPHY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
2023-24

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the Department of Philosophy for enhancing our skill through
such project. I would also like to thank our Respected Chairperson, Dr. Aquil Ahmad
for always giving us a platform to flourish our knowledge through practical enquiry.

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my Supervisor, DR. ABDUL

SHAKIL for guiding me throughout the whole project. It would have never been
possible without him to understand such a difficult topic.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for supporting and encouraging
me to work diligently throughout the whole project.

SAHIL

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER-1
OVERVIEW, EARLY LIFE & MAJOR WORKS 5-6
CHAPTER-2
JOHN RAWL’S VEIL OF IGNORANCE 7-8
ABOUT JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF JUSTICE 9-11
JOHN RAWL’S PRINCIPLES UNDER THE THEORY OF JUSTICE 12-13
CHAPTER-3
IMPORTANCE 14-15
CRITICISM 16-17
CHAPTER-4
CONCLUSION 18-19

BIBLIOGRAPHY 20

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 CHAPTER-1

OVERVIEW, EARLY LIFE & MAJOR WORKS-

John Rawls, a prominent political philosopher, is best known for his influential works in political
theory, particularly his groundbreaking book "A Theory of Justice" published in 1971. In this work,
Rawls introduces the concept of justice as fairness, proposing principles of justice that would be
agreed upon by individuals in a hypothetical "original position" behind a "veil of ignorance,"
where they are unaware of their own attributes.

Another significant work by Rawls is "Political Liberalism" (1993), where he further develops his
ideas within the framework of political liberalism, exploring how a just society can accommodate
a diversity of conflicting religious, philosophical, and moral doctrines.

Additionally, Rawls wrote "The Law of Peoples" (1999), which extends his theory of justice to the
international realm, outlining principles for just international relations among societies with
different cultures, religions, and political systems.

These works by Rawls have had a profound impact on political philosophy and continue to be
widely studied and debated.

John Rawls was a political philosopher. He developed the theory of justice as fairness. This theory
is one of the most influential in contemporary political philosophy. The theory of justice as
fairness holds that a just society is one in which all individuals have equal fundamental rights and
opportunities. Socioeconomic inequalities are regulated in this society. The regulation is for the
benefit of the least advantaged members of society.

Understanding and analyzing Rawls' theory of justice can help shape policies and programs. These
policies and programs promote the welfare and well-being of all citizens. The theory is especially
useful in promoting the welfare of the most vulnerable and marginalized members of society.

Furthermore, Rawls' concepts of the original position and the veil of ignorance can be valuable
tools. They can help evaluate policies and practices from a fair and unbiased perspective. The

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original position and the veil of ignorance involve imagining unbiased decision-makers. These
decision-makers are unaware of their own position in society. Through this exercise, one can
better assess the fairness and justice of socioeconomic policies.

John Rawls, widely regarded as the preeminent political philosopher of the 20th century, was
born on February 21, 1921, in Baltimore, Maryland, and passed away on November 24, 2002, in
Lexington, Massachusetts. After earning a degree in philosophy in 1943, Rawls served in a military
intelligence unit in the South Pacific for two years. He obtained his Ph.D. in philosophy in 1948
and commenced teaching at Princeton University. In 1952, Rawls was awarded a Fulbright
fellowship at Oxford, where he initially conceived the idea that would later be known as his
"thought experiment." Subsequently, he held positions at Cornell University, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and ultimately at Harvard University, where he taught for over three
decades.

John Rawls's Theory of Justice is a seminal work in political philosophy, particularly known for its
emphasis on principles of justice and fairness within a liberal framework. Rawls posits that a just
society is one that individuals would agree to under conditions of equality and impartiality, in
what he terms the original position. In this hypothetical scenario, individuals are behind a "veil of
ignorance," unaware of their own characteristics, such as social status, wealth, or talents. From
this position, they would select principles of justice that would govern society.

6
 CHAPTER-2

John Rawls' Veil of Ignorance

John Rawls' Veil of Ignorance is a foundational concept in political philosophy, outlined in his
influential work "A Theory of Justice." At its core, the Veil of Ignorance is a thought experiment
designed to guide the construction of just societies. Imagine, Rawls suggests, that individuals are
placed behind a hypothetical veil that obscures their knowledge of their own attributes, such as
their social status, wealth, talents, gender, race, or even their conception of the good life.
Essentially, they are stripped of any information that might bias their decision-making process.
From this position of ignorance, individuals are tasked with designing the fundamental principles
that will govern society. The rationale behind the Veil of Ignorance is simple yet profound: if
people are unaware of their own circumstances and characteristics, they are more likely to make
fair and impartial decisions. In this state of ignorance, individuals have no incentive to prioritize
their own interests or the interests of a particular group over others. Instead, they are compelled
to consider the needs and interests of all members of society equally. Rawl’s argues that rational
individuals behind the Veil of Ignorance would choose principles of justice that ensure basic rights
and liberties for all citizens, as well as social and economic inequalities that benefit the least
advantaged members of society. This principle, known as the "difference principle," suggests that
any inequalities should be arranged so as to maximize the welfare of the least well-off. By
adopting the Veil of Ignorance as a guiding principle, Rawls aims to address the inherent
inequalities and injustices that exist within societies. Rather than starting from a position of
privilege or disadvantage, individuals are encouraged to consider what arrangements would be
just and fair for everyone, regardless of their own circumstances. Critics of Rawls' theory have
raised various objections. Some argue that it relies too heavily on abstract reasoning and fails to
account for the complexities of real-world politics and human nature. Others contend that the
Veil of Ignorance is unrealistic, as individuals are inherently biased by their own experiences and
perspectives. Despite these criticisms, Rawls' Veil of Ignorance remains a powerful tool for
thinking about justice and fairness in society. It challenges us to consider how we would structure

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our institutions and distribute resources if we were unaware of our own positions within society.
In doing so, it prompts us to confront our own biases and privileges, and to strive for a more
equitable and just world for all.

John Rawls' Veil of Ignorance is a thought experiment that suggests people should imagine
themselves behind a veil of ignorance that keeps them from knowing who they are and identifying
with their circumstances.

• People can think about how societies should function more objectively when they are
unaware of their personal circumstances.

• In order to determine the fundamental institutions and structures of a just society, Rawls
used the curtain of ignorance.

• The decision-makers are presumptively acting solely in their interests. Still, they are
limited in their ability to choose principles that are advantageous to their particular circumstances
by the lack of information available to them.

• Rawls believed that approaching tough issues through a veil of ignorance and applying
these principles can help decide more fairly how the rules of society should be structured.

• According to Rawls and many others, justice is fundamentally about fairness.

• However, many criticisms have been leveled against Rawls's veil of ignorance.

o the indeterminate choice in the initial position is one of the most prevalent.

o Another criticism is that even if parties can make certain rational decisions in their interest
without knowing their final ends, their needs and social and economic cooperation are still
provided to them.

• In conclusion, John Rawls' Veil of Ignorance suggests that people should imagine
themselves behind a veil of ignorance when considering how societies should operate.

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About John Rawls's Theory of Justice

John Rawls, one of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century, presented a
groundbreaking theory of justice in his seminal work, "A Theory of Justice" (1971). Rawls sought
to address the fundamental question of how a just society should be structured, proposing
principles of justice that would guide the distribution of rights, liberties, and opportunities.
Central to Rawls' theory is the concept of the "original position" and the "veil of ignorance," which
he uses to derive principles of justice that individuals would agree upon from a position of fairness
and impartiality. Rawl’s begins by introducing the concept of the "original position," a
hypothetical scenario where individuals come together to establish the principles of justice for
their society. In this thought experiment, individuals are assumed to be rational and self-
interested, but they are also behind a "veil of ignorance" that obscures specific details about
themselves, such as their race, gender, social status, and personal abilities. This veil of ignorance
ensures that individuals deliberate impartially, unaware of their own circumstances, and
therefore strive for principles of justice that are fair and unbiased. From the original position,
Rawls argues that rational individuals would unanimously agree to two principles of justice: The
Principle of Equal Basic Liberties: This principle states that each person should have an equal right
to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all. These basic liberties
include freedom of speech, assembly, conscience, and the right to vote. Rawls contends that
these liberties are essential for individuals to pursue their own conception of the good life and to
engage fully in democratic deliberation. The Difference Principle: Rawls' second principle
addresses social and economic inequalities. According to the difference principle, social and
economic inequalities are permissible only if they work to the benefit of the least advantaged
members of society. In other words, any inequalities in wealth, income, or opportunities should
be arranged so that they improve the position of the least well-off individuals. Rawls emphasizes
the importance of fair equality of opportunity, ensuring that individuals have an equal chance to
compete for positions and opportunities regardless of their social background. Rawl’s argues that
these principles of justice would be chosen by rational individuals in the original position because

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they offer the best guarantee of fairness and equality for all members of society. By prioritizing
the protection of basic liberties and the well-being of the least advantaged, Rawls seeks to create
a just society that upholds the dignity and worth of every individual. One of the key strengths of
Rawls' theory is its emphasis on fairness and impartiality. By placing individuals behind the veil of
ignorance, Rawls ensures that the principles of justice are chosen without bias or prejudice. This
approach guards against the influence of personal interests and ensures that the resulting
principles are based on rational deliberation rather than arbitrary preferences. Rawl’s theory also
offers a powerful critique of utilitarianism, a prominent ethical theory that prioritizes the
maximization of overall happiness or utility. Unlike utilitarianism, which can justify sacrificing the
rights and interests of individuals for the greater good, Rawls' theory of justice prioritizes the
protection of individual rights and liberties as foundational to a just society. However, Rawls'
theory is not without its criticisms. Some scholars have questioned the feasibility of applying the
principles of justice derived from the original position to real-world political institutions and policy
decisions. Others have argued that Rawls' focus on the distribution of primary goods, such as
wealth and income, neglects other important aspects of justice, such as recognition,
representation, and cultural rights. Additionally, critics have pointed out that Rawls' theory may
not adequately address issues of global justice, as it primarily focuses on the principles governing
domestic societies. In an increasingly interconnected world, questions of justice extend beyond
national borders, raising concerns about how Rawls' theory can be applied to address global
inequalities and injustices. Despite these criticisms, Rawls' theory of justice remains a central and
influential framework in contemporary political philosophy. Its emphasis on fairness, equality, and
the protection of individual rights continues to shape debates about social justice, democracy,
and the role of the state in contemporary societies. As scholars and policymakers grapple with
the complex challenges of inequality, diversity, and globalization, Rawls' insights offer valuable
guidance for envisioning and striving towards a more just and equitable world.

➢ He put forward his argument in a paper titled "Justice as Fairness," which he spent years
perfecting.
➢ His most well-known work is Justice as Fairness, which outlines Rawls' vision of a just,
liberal society.

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 ➢ In John Rawls Book of 1971- A Theory of Justice, Rawls first systematically outlined justice
as fairness.
➢ Rawls restated the theory in Political Liberalism (1993), The Law of Peoples (1999), and
Justice as Fairness: A Restatement throughout his life (2001).
➢ Rawls believed that a fair and unbiased agreement between people could only be reached
if they didn't know their social status. This is called the "veil of ignorance."
➢ They would be compelled to use only human reason to decide what social justice meant
for their society.
➢ Rawls proposed two principles of justice:

Everyone should have the same basic rights and freedoms.

Social and economic inequalities should be arranged in a way that benefits everyone
and they should be connected to job opportunities and positions available.

➢ A person's social class, personal motivation, inherited traits, and luck can contribute to
inequality.
➢ Nevertheless, Rawls insisted that a just society must find a way to make these disparities
work in everyone's favour.
➢ Rawls challenged the utilitarian conception of justice by arguing that justice was more
than efficiency.

According to his theory of justice as fairness, a society of free people who share the same
fundamental rights and work together to maintain an egalitarian economic system.

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John Rawls's Principles under the Theory of Justice

John Rawls's Theory of Justice is a seminal work in political philosophy, particularly known for its
emphasis on principles of justice and fairness within a liberal framework. Rawls posits that a just
society is one that individuals would agree to under conditions of equality and impartiality, in
what he terms the original position. In this hypothetical scenario, individuals are behind a "veil of
ignorance," unaware of their own characteristics, such as social status, wealth, or talents. From
this position, they would select principles of justice that would govern society.

Rawls's theory aims to reconcile the tension between liberty and equality within a just society.
He argues that individuals in the original position, behind the veil of ignorance, would select these
principles as rational choices for structuring society. This is because, in this hypothetical scenario,
individuals are motivated to ensure fair treatment for themselves, not knowing what position
they will occupy in society. Moreover, Rawls introduces the idea of the "original position" to
demonstrate the rationality behind these principles. He suggests that individuals in the original
position would choose these principles as a rational means of safeguarding their own interests,
regardless of their specific circumstances. This hypothetical scenario serves as a thought
experiment to uncover principles that individuals would agree to under conditions of fairness and
equality. Rawl’s theory has garnered significant attention and criticism since its publication. Some
critics argue that it places too much emphasis on redistributive justice and fails to adequately
address the role of merit or individual responsibility in determining social and economic
outcomes. Others contend that the original position and veil of ignorance are unrealistic and
arbitrary constructs that do not accurately reflect how individuals make decisions in the real
world. Despite these criticisms, Rawls's Theory of Justice remains influential in contemporary
political philosophy and has sparked extensive debate and discussion about the nature of justice,
equality, and the role of the state in ensuring fairness within society. Its emphasis on the principles
of fairness, liberty, and the prioritization of the least advantaged continues to shape academic
discourse and inform discussions on social policy and political reform.

John Rawls formulated two principles in his Theory of Justice: The Equality Principle and the
Difference Principle.

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Equality Principle

John Rawls' theory of justice is based on the principles of equal liberty and equality. According to
the equal liberty principle, everyone is entitled to the broadest range of liberties consistent with
similar liberties for all. This principle is mainly concerned with distributing rights and liberties,
including political liberty, freedom of speech and assembly, liberty of conscience, and freedom of
thought. Rawls believed that a just society should find a way to reconcile liberty and equality. He
understood that unfairness is a result of inherited traits, social class, individual motivation, and
even luck. However, he insisted that a just society should strive to reduce these inequalities as
much as possible. According to him, society should provide "fair equality of opportunity" by
making the greatest positions in both the private and governmental sectors "accessible" to
everyone. One way a society could do this is by eliminating discrimination. Making education
available to all people is a different approach. Rawls developed the difference principle to address
this issue. When he created his Principles of Justice theory, Rawls introduced the "Original
Position." With the device's help, a fictitious scenario was produced in which citizens could
contract over the resource distribution without perceiving unfairness between the parties. In this
position, individuals would agree on two principles: First, everyone has an equal right to
fundamental freedoms; Secondly, social and economic inequalities are acceptable only if they
benefit everyone in society or the least-advantaged member.

Difference Principle

The Difference Principle, which Rawls favoured, is the second guiding idea. It aims to maximize
social advancement for the "least-advantaged" group. By the Difference Principle, Rawls
recommended ensuring "fair equality of opportunity," as well as other potential measures like a
minimum wage or guaranteed income. The least advantaged people in the society should benefit
the most from social and economic inequalities as possible. According to Rawls, people who care
about upholding and exercising their moral authority would concur on norms that ensure
everyone has access to the same fundamental liberties and means to further their interests.

Whether one agrees or disagrees with Rawls' Difference Principle depends on one's political
philosophy.

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 CHAPTER-3

IMPORTANCE

John Rawls's principles under the Theory of Justice are significant for several reasons:

1. *Fairness*: Rawls emphasizes fairness in distributing social and economic goods. His principles,
especially the "veil of ignorance," ensure that decisions are made without knowledge of one's
own position in society, leading to impartiality and fairness.

2. *Equal Liberty Principle*: Rawls prioritizes individual liberties, ensuring that each person has
the same basic rights and freedoms, which are not to be sacrificed for the greater good.

3. *Difference Principle*: This principle permits social and economic inequalities only if they
benefit the least advantaged members of society. It aims to reduce inequality and improve the
situation of the most vulnerable.

4. *Justice as Fairness*: Rawls's theory provides a framework for a just society where fairness is
paramount. It offers a way to reconcile individual freedoms with societal well-being, promoting a
more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

5. *Democratic Governance*: Rawls's principles support the idea of democratic governance,

where decisions are made through fair procedures and with consideration for the interests of all
members of society.

Overall, Rawls's principles contribute to the development of a just society where fairness,
equality, and the well-being of all individuals are prioritized.

Some points highlighting the importance of John Rawls' principles under the Theory of Justice:

John Rawls' Theory of Justice is a significant contribution to political philosophy and ethics.

The Liberty Principle and the Difference Principle, two pillars of Rawls' theory of justice, are their
cornerstones.

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According to the Liberty Principle, everyone is entitled to a fundamental set of liberties that are
compatible with the same liberties enjoyed by everyone else.

According to the Difference Principle, social and economic disparities should be set up to help the
most disadvantaged people in society.

Since fairness and equality are prioritized in Rawls' theory, social justice is approached from this
perspective.

Particularly in talks about distributive justice, political Liberalism, and democratic theory, Rawls'
work has substantially influenced modern political and ethical debates.

The principles of justice in Rawls' theory have been used to evaluate policies and systems of
governance and to identify areas where reform or change is needed to promote greater fairness
and equality.

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CRITICISM

John Rawls' theory of justice, as outlined in his influential work "A Theory of Justice," has garnered
both praise and criticism since its publication. Some common criticisms of Rawls' theory include:

1. Idealized Thought Experiment: Rawls' theory relies heavily on the "original position" and the
"veil of ignorance" as a way to determine principles of justice. Critics argue that these thought
experiments are overly abstract and divorced from real-world conditions, making it difficult to
apply Rawls' principles in practice.

2. Neglect of Historical Injustice: Some critics argue that Rawls' theory fails to adequately address
historical injustices, particularly those related to race, gender, and colonialism. By focusing on
hypothetical scenarios of justice, Rawls may overlook the ways in which past injustices continue
to shape present inequalities.

3. Limited Scope of Justice: Rawls' primary focus is on distributive justice, particularly the fair
distribution of social and economic resources. Critics argue that this narrow focus neglects other
dimensions of justice, such as recognition, participation, and capabilities, which are important for
addressing issues of identity, dignity, and political power.

4. Conservatism and Stability: Rawls' principles of justice prioritize stability and the preservation
of existing institutions, which some critics argue may perpetuate unjust social hierarchies and
inhibit transformative change. By prioritizing stability over radical reform, Rawls' theory may fail
to adequately address systemic injustices.

5. Undermining of Individual Liberties: Rawls' emphasis on the difference principle, which allows
for economic inequalities as long as they benefit the least advantaged, has been criticized for
potentially undermining individual liberties and autonomy. Critics argue that Rawls' theory may
prioritize economic equality over individual freedom.

6. Inadequate Treatment of Global Justice: Rawls' theory primarily focuses on justice within the
boundaries of a single nation-state, largely ignoring issues of global justice and the obligations of
affluent nations towards the global poor. Critics argue that Rawls' theory fails to address the
interconnectedness of global economic and political systems.

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7. Lack of Concrete Policy Prescriptions: Rawls' theory provides broad principles of justice but
offers few concrete policy prescriptions for achieving a just society. Critics argue that without
practical guidance on how to implement his principles, Rawls' theory may lack relevance for real-
world social and political struggles.

These criticisms notwithstanding, Rawls' theory of justice remains influential in contemporary

political philosophy and continues to shape debates on issues of fairness, equality, and social
justice. However, scholars and activists continue to engage with and critique Rawls' ideas in order
to develop more inclusive and comprehensive theories of justice.

John Rawls' theory of justice, Justice as Fairness, has been subject to several criticisms. One
criticism is that the theory is biased in favor of rationality and excludes other factors. Critics argue
that the principles of Justice as Fairness could permit or demand inequalities and suffering to
benefit the least well-off, similar to utilitarianism. Another criticism is that Rawls' principles do
not allow enough tolerance for different religious and strongly held beliefs. In his defense of
libertarianism, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Robert Nozick criticized Rawls' explanation of
distributive justice (1974). Allan Bloom criticized Rawls for cherry-picking principles to suit the
liberal prejudices of the moment. Philosopher Charles W. Mills critiques the underlying
assumptions of Rawls's work as inherently white and subject to glaring blind spots. Economist
Amartya Sen raised concerns over Rawls' emphasis on primary social goods, arguing that we
should attend to the distribution of primary goods and how effectively people can use those
goods. In summary, John Rawls' theory of justice has been criticized for being biased in favor of
rationality, similar to utilitarianism. Its opponents claim it does not allow for firmly-held religious
and philosophical differences. Other criticisms include its account of distributive justice, cherry-
picking principles to suit liberal prejudices, inherent whiteness with glaring blind spots, and
emphasis on primary social goods.

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 CHAPTER-4

CONCLUSION

John Rawls' Theory of Justice emphasizes a just society. This society maximizes basic freedoms. It
also regulates socioeconomic inequality. This regulation benefits the least advantaged members
of society. Additionally, the theory guarantees equal opportunity. Rawls' theory has had a
significant impact on political and moral philosophy. It remains relevant in contemporary debates
about justice and equality.

John Rawls's theory of justice can be summarized in several key conclusions:

Original Position and Veil of Ignorance: Rawls introduces the idea of the original position, a
hypothetical scenario where individuals are tasked with designing the principles of justice for
society. They do this behind a veil of ignorance, where they are unaware of their own
characteristics such as wealth, social status, talents, or even their conception of the good. This
ensures fairness in the selection of principles.

Principles of Justice: Rawls proposes two principles of justice that would be agreed upon in the
original position:

First Principle: Each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties
compatible with similar liberties for all.

Second Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are
both:

a. To the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and

b. Attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of
opportunity.

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Difference Principle: Rawls emphasizes the priority of the second principle, known as the
difference principle. This principle allows for inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged
members of society. In other words, any social or economic inequality must be to the advantage
of the least well-off.

Fair Equality of Opportunity: Rawls argues for fair equality of opportunity, meaning that
individuals should have an equal chance to attain positions and offices based on their talents and
abilities. This principle aims to eliminate barriers to social mobility and ensure that one's social
and economic position is not predetermined by factors beyond their control.

Reflective Equilibrium: Rawls suggests that his theory of justice should be arrived at through a
process of reflective equilibrium, where intuitions about justice, principles, and particular
judgments are brought into coherence. This involves adjusting principles to fit our considered
judgments about justice and our moral intuitions.

Overall, Rawls's theory of justice seeks to establish a framework for a just society that prioritizes
fairness, equality, and the well-being of the least advantaged members. It has had a significant
influence on political philosophy and continues to be widely studied and debated.

19
 Bibliography

➢ Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press.

➢ Rawls, J. (1993). Political Liberalism. Columbia University Press.

➢ Rawls, J. (1999). The Law of Peoples: with "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited".

Harvard University Press.

➢ Rawls, J. (2001). Justice as Fairness: A Restatement. Harvard University Press.
➢ Kukathas, C., & Pettit, P. (1990). Rawls: A Theory of Justice and Its Critics. Stanford
University Press.
➢ Talisse, R. B. (1999). Rawls and the Political Economy of the Welfare State. University of
Pennsylvania Press.
➢ Freeman, S. (Ed.). (2002). The Cambridge Companion to Rawls. Cambridge University
Press.
➢ Daniels, N. (Ed.). (1989). Reading Rawls: Critical Studies on Rawls' A Theory of Justice.
Stanford University Press.
➢ Rawls, J. (1958). Justice as Fairness. Philosophical Review, 67(2).
➢ Rawls, J. (1971). A Kantian Conception of Equality. Cambridge Review, 92(2).
➢ Rawls, J. (1973). The Basic Liberties and Their Priority. Political Studies, 21(3).
➢ Rawls, J. (1980). Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory. The Journal of Philosophy, 77(9),
515-572.

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