Name: Tooba Noor-ul-Ieman

Department: BS Biochemistry
Roll number: 22007232-001
Subject: Microbiology
Assignment: #01
Assignment topics:
i) Rejection of 2 and 5 kingdom classification systems.
ii) Current classification system in use
iii) Evolution of microorganisms
I) Rejection of 2 and 5 kingdom classification systems:
● Rejection of 2 Kingdom Classification:
1. Lack of Diversity: The two-kingdom classification (plants and animals) oversimplified the
biological diversity. Many organisms with unique characteristics did not fit neatly into either
category.
2. Ignoring Microorganisms: The system ignored microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, which
play crucial roles in ecosystems and have distinct biological characteristics separate from plants
and animals.
3. Evolutionary Relationships: The two-kingdom classification did not consider evolutionary
relationships among organisms. It failed to reflect the shared ancestry and genetic similarities
among different groups.
4. Complexity of Protists: Protists, a diverse group including unicellular eukaryotes,
demonstrated a range of biological complexities not accommodated by a two-kingdom system.
5. Emergence of Molecular Biology: Advances in molecular biology and genetic studies provided
insights into the genetic makeup of organisms, revealing complexities that the two-kingdom
classification could not capture adequately.

● Rejection of 5 Kingdom Classification:

This system was proposed by Robert H. Whittaker, was widely accepted and influential for many
years; it has not been outright rejected. Instead, it has been refined and supplemented with
more recent advances in molecular biology and genetic studies.
1. Polyphyletic Kingdom Protista: The inclusion of Kingdom Protista was criticized as it
encompassed various unrelated organisms, making it a polyphyletic group that did not
represent a single evolutionary lineage.
2. Complexity within Fungi: The separation of fungi into a distinct kingdom raised concerns, as
fungi share more genetic similarities with animals than plants. This complexity challenged the
clear-cut distinctions proposed by the five-kingdom system.
3. Genetic Insights: Advances in molecular biology and DNA sequencing provided a more
accurate understanding of evolutionary relationships, highlighting the need for a classification
system that reflects genetic data.
4. Overlap in Animal and Plant Characteristics: Some organisms displayed characteristics of
both animals and plants, leading to challenges in categorizing them strictly within the confines
of the five-kingdom system.
5. Introduction of Domain System: The recognition of the three-domain system (Bacteria,
Archaea, Eukarya) better reflects the evolutionary relationships among organisms, surpassing
the limitations imposed by the five-kingdom classification.

II) Current classification system for living organisms:

The current classification system in use is based on the three-domain system, which divides all
living organisms into three major domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This system reflects
the evolutionary relationships among organisms based on molecular and genetic data. Each
domain is further subdivided into kingdoms, and the classification continues into phyla, classes,
orders, families, genera, and species.
1. Bacteria: Includes prokaryotic organisms with diverse shapes and structures, and they are
found in various environments.
For example Escherichia coli, and Myobacterium tuberculosis.
2. Archaea: Another domain of prokaryotic organisms, often extremophiles, thriving in extreme
environments such as high temperatures, acidity, or salinity.
For example Methanococcus jannaschii.
3. Eukarya: Comprises eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
Eukaryotes have cells with a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
For example Homo sapiens.

III) Evolution of bacteria, eukarya, and archaea:

● Evolution of bacteria:
They are among the oldest life forms, and evolved over billions of years. Horizontal gene
transfer, mutation, and natural selection contribute to bacterial evolution. Bacteria have
adapted to diverse environments, developing varied metabolic pathways and survival strategies.
● Evolution of eukarya:
They comprise of plants, animals, fungi, and protists, and appeared around 2 billion years ago.
Eukaryotic cells likely originated through symbiotic relationships between different prokaryotic
organisms. Eukaryotic evolution led to enhanced complexity, featuring organelle development
and the emergence of multicellular structures.
● Evolution of Archaea:
They were initially misclassified as bacteria, and represent a distinct domain of life. Archaea
have evolved to thrive in extreme environments, such as extreme temperatures, acidity, or
salinity. They play essential roles in biogeochemical cycles, showcasing the remarkable diversity
of life on Earth.