General Biology

2nd quarter reviewer

Divide and Multiply  blood cells to replace the dying ones.
 Example: Wound healing also involves
LESSON 3.1 THE CELLS’ NEED TO DIVIDE
growth of new cells out of cell
Cell Division division.

03 Asexual reproduction

 Production of offspring from a single

parent without the involvement of
gametes.
 Binary Fission

 Linked to the cell theory, “all LESSON 3.2

living things are composed of
cells, and all cells come from
pre-existing cells.
 Allows organisms to
reproduce asexually, grow,
and repair worn-out or
damaged tissues
Chromosomes
 DNA is tightly coiled in an organized
structure called chromosome.
 It is a long, continuous thread of DNA
wounded together by DNA-associated
proteins, referred as histones.

01 Growth and development

 Humans are products of numerous

cellular division.
 As life begins with single cell from
the fusion of the parents’ sex cells
turned into trillions after 9 months
that undergo embryonic
development.

02 Cell replacement

 Old cells in the body die and new cells

form.
 Epidermis is continuously being
replaced because dead skin cells cast
off like washing.
 Cell division happens in the red bone
marrow of the bone that continuously
make new red
Lesson 3.3
The Cell Cycle
 Cells follow definite stages of
growth, duplication, and
division.
 Discovered by Prevost and
Dumas (1824) while studying
the cleavage of zygote of frog.
 Process a cell undertakes to replicate
all of its material and divide into 2
identical cells
Stages of Cell Cycle
 Interphase
 The cell grows and makes a
copy of its DNA.
 Growth period in the cell
cycle
 Gap 1
 Cell carries out its normal
metabolic function. Cells are
specialized based on their
structures and functions.
 Cells also increase their size,
as their organelles increase in
number.
 Cells have a required size
limit.
 Synthesis
 The cell makes a copy of the
genetic material in the form
of nuclear DNA.
 Each chromosome contains
one DNA molecule that is
copied with enough accuracy
through DNA replication.
 This process ensures that the
daughter cell receives exact
copies of the parent’s genetic
material during cell division.
 During replication, the 2
strands of each DNA molecule
“unzip” and separate.
 Gap 2
 Cells continue to carry out
their normal functions and
undergo further growth.
 Contains a critical checkpoint
before transitioning to the
next stage.
 The cells make sure that
everything is in order,
including growing to its
correct size and duplicating
DNA without damage.
Mitosis
 Active and full of activity.
 Division of the nucleus and the
genetic material.
 4 parts: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase
 The hereditary material of the parent
the cell is given to the daughter cells.
 Its goal is to distribute an identical set
of genetic instructions.
 The nuclear DNA of the cell condenses
into visible chromosomes and is
pulled apart by the mitotic spindle
Cytokinesis
 The cell separates its DNA into two
sets and divides the cytoplasm of the
cell.
 Begins early during telophase and
continues after the nuclei have
formed in the daughter cells.
Animal Cell Division (Contractile Cytokinesis)
 Contractile Ring
 Contracts inward and pinches
the cell in two.
Plant Cell Division
  Much stiffer that animal cells. Apoptosis
 Plant cells divide in 2 by building a
 Cell death
new structure down the middle of the
cell- CELL PLATE.

GO Phase Resting Period

 While some cells are constantly Spindle Checkpoint

dividing, some cells types are at rest.
 Cell is performing its function without
actively preparing to divide.
 Permanent state for some cells, while
others may re-start division if they get
the right signals.
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
Checkpoint
 Cell examines internal and external
cues and decides whether or not to
move forward with division.
G1 Checkpoint
 Main decision point for the cell.
Primary point at which it must choose
whether or not to divide.
 Checks for:
 Cell size
 Nutrients
 Growth factors
 DNA damage
G2 Checkpoint
 Make sure that cell division goes
smoothly.
 Check for:
 DNA integrity
 DNA replication
 If errors/ damage are detected, the
cell will pause at the G2 checkpoint to
allow for repairs.
 Problems with the DNA, the
cell cycle is halted, and the
cell attempts to either
complete replication or repair
the damaged DNA.
 If the damage is irreparable-
undergo apoptosis.
 Cell examines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached to
spindle microtubules.
 The cycle will not proceed until all the
chromosomes are firmly attached to
at least 2 spindle fibers from opposite
poles of the cell.
 Checks for:
 Chromosome attachment to
the spindle at metaphase
plate
 “Straggler” chromosomes – the cell
will pause mitosis, allowing time for
the spindle to capture the stray
chromosome.
Lesson 3.4 THE MEHCANISM OF CELL
DIVISION
CELL DIVISION
Interphase
 Cell is being prepared before its
division
 Critical stage by which the cell
duplicates its organelles and
replicates its DNA.
 At the end of this process, an
individual cell has 2 full sets of DNA or
chromosomes.
 The cell attains its large size intended
for division
Mitosis

 Division of nucleus into 2 genetically Metaphase

identical nuclei containing the same
full set of DNA.
 Occurs in somatic cells, except the sex
cells
 Prepares the cell for cytokinesis
 4 main phases: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, and Telophase
 This is how individuals grow body
parts, develop, repair damaged
tissues, replace dead cells and change
at a cellular level as they mature
 Chromosomes at the center
• Meta means “after”
Prophase • Events that occur:
 The spindle fibers attached to the
kinetochore facilitates the
movements of chromosomes toward
the middle of the cell
 The chromosomes appear to line up
along a plate equidistant from a
microtubule region

Anaphase

 Start of Mitosis

• Pro means “before”

• Events that occur:

 Chromatin condenses the

DNA into chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are packaged
into neat bundles for easier to
 Chromatids to Opposite Poles
move around when the
 Ana means “up” or “back”
division starts.
 Sister chromatids are tightly paired
 The nuclear envelope breaks
due to the centromere and protein
down.
cohesin
 The nucleolus also disappears
 Events that occur:
 Mitotic spindle is formed
 Cohesin breaks down and the
 Microtubule migrate to
sister chromatids separate
opposite poles of the cell
from each other.
 Chromosomes are prepared
 Sister chromatids pull away
to line up at the center of the
from each other toward the
cell
 opposite poles/ends of the • Differs in animal and plant cell
cell. because of some differences in
cellular structures

Telophase
Animal cell

 formation of cleavage furrow

 The daughter cells receive equal

portions of the parent’s plasma
content

 Contractile ring- made of overlapping

actin and myosin filaments

Plant cell
 Reformation of Nuclei
 Telo means “end”  the membrane cannot pinch off
 Events that occur: because of the cell wall
 2 complete sets of identical
 A cell plate forms midway between
chromosomes are positioned
the 2 daughter cells nuclei
to each pole of the cell.
 The small fragments and  New cellulose and other materials are
protein molecules are laid down for the formation of the cell
scattered in the cytoplasm to wall to the newly formed plant cell.
rebuild the nuclear
membrane.
 Nuclear membrane starts to
form and chromosomes begin
to uncoil Application of Mitosis

1. Cloning
 Technique employed in
Cytokinesis biotechnology to produce
identical copies of cells or
DNA fragments
 Example: Fingerprinting

2. Tissue Culture
 The growth of tissues/cells
outside of the body of the
organism in a liquid, semi-
• Entire cytoplasm divides into 2 cells solid, or solid growth medium
 Cell undergoes division to
• Typically starts to occur in the late
form multiple tissues.
anaphase or telophase
 3. Stem Cell Recognition • Cell growth and division occur in
 Undergo mitosis to response to different growth factors
regenerate and repair present in cells.
diseased or damaged tissues
• Some growth factors can also affect
in people.
the growth of other cells

Lesson 3.5 REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE

Internal Factors
Regulation
 Come from inside the cell that include
• To enable the cell to maintain its several types of molecules in its
appropriate size, cell growth and cytoplasm
division must be coordinated all the
time.
Internal Factors (Eukaryotic cell)
• Cells do not divide in situations where
nutrients are in short supply • Kinases
• Cells are usually activated by both  Enzyme that transfers a phosphate
internal and external factors group from one molecule to the
target molecule

• Cyclins

 Are rapidly destroyed at certain points

External Factors
in the cell cycle to allow cells to
 Come from outside the cell that are in progress from G1 to M stage
the form of messages from nearby
cells or from remote parts of the
organism’s body

Physical external Factors

• Cell-to-cell contact

• Contact inhibition- when a cell

touches another cells, it stops dividing

• Anchorage dependent- cells only

grow if surface is available and stop • Partnership between kinases and
dividing when detached from the cyclins
culture dish  Helps cells advance to different stages
of the cell cycle

Chemical External Factors

• Chemical signals released by the cell • Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases

such as growth factors provide  Special proteins that control the
instructions for other cells to grow. progress of a cell from one phase to
the next of the cell cycle
 • Originate from normal cells with
defective genes that help in making
Apoptosis
proteins, which are involved in cell
• A programmed cell death or suicide cycle regulation

• Body’s way to get rid of a cell stuck at

a cell cycle checkpoint or in
Tumor
irreparable condition to eliminate
cells that are no longer functioning • Can be characterized as benign or
malignant
• The nucleus of an apoptotic cell
shrinks, its chromosomes disintegrate • Benign tumors - cancer cells that
into small pieces, and its remain clustered together
mitochondria stops supplying energy.
• Malignant tumors – tumors that
• The cell then collapses into several break away or metastasize
compartments and the immune cells
• They are dangerous inside the body
recognize it for destruction while
other chemical parts of the apoptotic Example: if they are in the brain, they do not
cell are going to be recycled for use in transmit electrical signals for response.
building other molecules.

2 Types of Genetic Errors (Mutations)

Lesson 3.6 CANCER: GROWING OUT OF
CONTROL • 1st type : Oncogenes – accelerate the
cell cycle

• 2nd type- responsible for cell cycle

Cancer brakes
• Group of diseases characterized by • Some mutations can be inherited
uncontrolled and abnormal cell
division • Other mutations can be triggered by
exposure to radiation or carcinogenics
• Instead of stopping and starting at
appropriate points, cancerous cells
divide continuously until a Standard Treatment
disorganized solid mass of cells are
formed (Tumor) • Local

 Surgery – removal of the cancerous

body part

 Radiation Therapy

– exposure to X-rays to kill cancer

cells and shrink the tumor size.

- usually localized or targeted to a

specific body region so it does not
damage healthy cells

 Systemic
  Chemotherapy sperm cells before
fertilization.
- uses certain drugs to kill actively
dividing cells Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter (FACS)

- lock DNA synthesis preventing the  Machine used to differentiate

cells from completing the S phase or and isolate X or Y-bearing
stopping the assembly and sperm cells.
disassembly of microtubule to  Using a laser beam, separates
prevent movement of the X for Y carrying sperm cells
chromosomes. based on the fluorescence of
the DNA present in the sperm
 Immunotherapy
cells
- uses substances either from the
body or laboratory to improve the
body’s defense to fight cancer LESSON 4.1: THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE AND
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Biotechnology
• Union of 2 sex cells
• Wide array of technological
applications that use living organisms • Fertilization- produces a zygote
to process products that improve the
• The sex cells produced in meiosis are
well-being of organisms and the
haploid cells
planet.
MEIOSIS
• Biotechnology specialists- work in
research and development divisions • Spermatogenesis- process of sperm
of pharmaceuticals and other cell in the testes formed.
biotechnology companies.
• Oogenesis – process of egg cell in the
ovary formed
CHAPTER 4: PREPARATION FOR NEXT • Reduction of chromosomes is
GENERATION essential in order to restore the
chromosome number once a sperm
unites with an egg during fertilization
Sperm Sorting

 Process o select a Y-carrying or an X-

LESSON 4.2: CHROMOSOMES AND SEX CELLS
carrying sperm cell
 Used to reduce X-linked
associated diseases.
 Used to balance the gender in
families

Microsort

 Method of sperm sorting that 2 MAJOR GROUPS OF CELLS

uses a dye to separate X and Y
 1. Somatic Cells/ Body Cells

• Greek word “soma” –

means body

• Compose the body tissues

and organs

2. Germ Cells

• Produced in sex organs

• Way by which traits can be

transmitted to the future
offspring
LESSON 4.3: MEIOSIS
• Developed into sex cells
• Production of sex cells with haploid
Chromosomes chromosomes
• Each species has a distinct number of • Occurs in the sex organs
chromosomes inside their body cells.
• Involves the pairing of homologous
• Homologous chromosomes chromosomes
- set of chromosomes having the • Important for sexual reproduction
same length and appearance that was
inherited from the parents. • Reduction Division- divides the
number of chromosomes into halves
- contains copies of the same gene in the formation of the gametes
coding for a trait, but they are completely
identical as they came from 2 sources

• Karyotyping Meiosis I

- process of viewing the arranged • Focuses on the division of

chromosomes homologous chromosomes to
produce 2 haploid cells with
• Karyogram duplicated chromosomes.
- diagram of chromosomes

- organized view of the chromosome Prophase I

make up of an individual.
• Breaking down of nuclear envelope.

• Spindle fibers began to assemble.

• Duplicated chromosomes condense,

while the homologous chromosomes
pair and line up by gene precisely in
its entire length
 • Homologous chromosomes separate
from each other

• Chromosomes of each pair are pulled

to the opposite sides of the cell.

• Genetic material, recombines

Metaphase I

• The pairs of homologous

chromosomes are randomly moved
by the spindle fiber to the equator of
the cell.

• There are 23 chromosomes- 223 or 8,

388,608 combinations of
chromosomes

Telophase I

• The individual chromosomes that

have pulled in opposite directions
now gather at each pole.

• Reappearance of the nuclear

membrane and disassembly of spindle
fibers

Anaphase I
MEIOSIS II

Divide sister chromatids, resulting in sex cells

with only half the chromosome number

Prophase II

• New spindle forms around the

chromosome.

• The nuclear envelope breaks down

with chromosomes pulled at opposite
sides of the cell by the spindle fibers.
 Telophase II

Metaphase II • Nuclear

• Chromosomes line up along the

equator through the spindle fiber.

• Each chromosome has sister

chromatids still attached to the
envelope forms around each set of
centromere
chromosomes at opposite ends of the
cell.

• The spindle fiber breaks down and the

cell undergoes cytokinesis

Anaphase II

• Centromeres divide and sister

chromatids are individually pulled
apart, then move to opposite poles of
the cell.
Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis Oogenesis

• Process of gamete formation in

female

• Only one of the resulting cells gets

nearly all of the cytoplasm

• Gametogenesis in female begin

before birth while they are developing
as an embryo, and this will be
LESSON 4.4: arrested until that specific egg is
GAMETOGENESIS fertilized by a sperm cell many years
later.

Meiotic Process

 Produce haploid cells

Gametogenesis
– must first undergo further
development to form mature gametes
- Shows the difference in terms of the
gametes

Spermatogenesis

• The process by which sperm cells are

produced that occurs in the testes.

• The cells of the testes continuously

formed throughout the male’s
reproductive years.
 • Having only an X chromosome

LESSON 4.5: • No mental

IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous

chromosomes

• Random distribution of homologous

chromosomes during Meiosis

retardation

CROSSING-OVER AND RANDOM

FERTILIZATION

• Another factor that contributes to

genetic variation

• Synapsis- process that occurs during

prophase I, chromosomes line up,
while sections of their DNA are
exchanged
2. Down Syndrome

• Trisomy 21

• Most common disorder

• Most cases are not due to inheritance

but on random mistakes during the
formation of reproductive cells of one
of the parents
LESSON 4.6:
GENETIC DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH
MEIOSIS

1. Turner Syndrome

• 45, X
 4. Trisomy X

• Abnormal presence of an extra

chromosome

• Mild symptoms or none at all

3. Klinefelter Syndrome

• 47, XXY
5. Huntington Disease
• Undeveloped prostate gland and
testes
• Genetic defect on chromosome 4
 • Progressive motor, cognitive and
psychiatric abnormalities

7. Angelman Syndrome

• Deletion of part of short arm of

chromosome 15, maternal copy

8. Edward’s Syndrome

• Trisomy 18

• Mental retardation
6. Cri-du-chat Syndrome

• Deletion of the long arm of

chromosome 5

• Severe mental retardation

 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

1. Creation of Varieties

• Increases genetic variability from one

generation to the next

• During fertilization, 1 gamete from

each parent combines to form a
zygote

2. Gamete Formation and Reproduction

9. Patau’s Syndrome
• Process which sexually reproducing
• Trisomy 13
organisms make their sex cells, sperm
• Mental retardation and eggs

• During meiosis, a specialized cell

called a germ cell splits to make four
new sex cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes as the
original germ cell.

APPLICATIONS OF MEIOSIS

1. Tissue Culture

• Meiosis is also used in biotechnology

10. Prader-Willi Syndrome
to acquire genetic condition in cells.
• Deletion of part of short arm of
• Generate variation which aids in
chromosome, paternal copy
studies regarding evolutionary
• Mental retardation processes.

• Obesity and huge appetite after

infancy
2. In-vitro gamete formation

• In various gamete failure-derived

infertility issues, the embryonic stem
 cells are differentiated into germ-like
cells through the meiotic division.

• These gametes are formed in-vitro via

meiosis and are inserted into the
individuals with such disorders.