*ASSIGNMENT

QUES.1. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON; STRENGTH, HARDNESS, BRITTLENESS, AND

ELASTICITY

Strength:

1. Definition: Strength refers to the ability of a material to withstand an applied force

without failure or deformation.
2. Types: Different types of strength include tensile strength, compressive strength, shear
strength, and flexural strength, each measuring resistance to specific types of forces.
3. Application: Important in engineering and construction to ensure materials can
withstand loads without breaking or deforming.

Hardness:

1. Definition: Hardness is the measure of a material's resistance to indentation, scratching,

abrasion, or penetration.
2. Testing: Various hardness testing methods exist, including Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, and
Mohs scales, each utilizing different techniques and indenters.
3. Significance: Hardness impacts material durability, wear resistance, and suitability for
specific applications, such as cutting tools, bearings, and structural components.

Brittleness:

1. Definition: Brittleness refers to the tendency of a material to fracture or break under

stress without significant deformation.
2. Behavior: Brittle materials exhibit little or no plastic deformation before failure and
often fail suddenly and catastrophically.
3. Examples: Examples of brittle materials include ceramics, certain types of glass, and
some metals at low temperatures.

Elasticity:

1. Definition: Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size
after deformation when the applied stress is removed.
2. Hooke's Law: Elastic behavior follows Hooke's Law, which states that stress is directly
proportional to strain within the material's elastic limit.
3. Applications: Elasticity is crucial in designing springs, shock absorbers, and other
components where materials must withstand repeated loading cycles without
permanent deformation.

QUES.2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY

Malleability and ductility are both mechanical properties of materials, but they
describe different characteristics:

Malleability:

1. Definition: Malleability refers to the ability of a material to deform under compressive

stress, specifically by being hammered, rolled, or pressed, without breaking or cracking.
2. Process: Malleability is typically exhibited in materials that can be shaped or formed by
forces such as forging, rolling, or extrusion.
3. Examples: Metals like gold, silver, and aluminum are known for their high malleability,
allowing them to be easily shaped into thin sheets or wires.

Ductility:

1. Definition: Ductility refers to the ability of a material to deform under tensile stress,
specifically by stretching or elongating, without fracturing.
2. Process: Ductility is evident when a material can be drawn into thin wires or elongated
into various shapes without breaking.
3. Examples: Materials with high ductility include metals such as copper, iron, and steel,
which can be drawn into wires or stretched into various shapes without fracturing.

Key Differences:

1. Deformation Type: Malleability involves deformation under compressive stress,

whereas ductility involves deformation under tensile stress.
2. Resulting Shapes: Malleability results in materials being shaped or formed into thin
sheets or plates, while ductility results in materials being elongated into wires or
stretched into various shapes.
3. Applications: Malleable materials are often used in applications where shaping or
forming is required, such as metalworking and jewelry making, while ductile materials
are used where elongation or flexibility is needed, such as in wiring and structural
components.
 QUES.3. DEFINE TOUGHNESS, FATIGUE AND CREEP STRENGTh

Toughness:

 Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before
fracturing.
 It combines both strength and ductility, representing the amount of energy a material
can absorb without fracturing.
 High toughness materials can withstand impact and loading without rupturing.
 It is quantified by the area under the stress-strain curve in a tensile test.
 Toughness is crucial for materials used in applications where resistance to fracture is
essential.

Fatigue:

 Fatigue is the weakening of a material due to repeated loading and unloading, often
below its ultimate strength.
 It occurs due to the accumulation of microscopic cracks and damage caused by cyclic
loading over time.
 Fatigue can lead to failure even when the applied stress is below the material's yield or
ultimate strength.
 Common in engineering components subjected to cyclic loading such as machinery,
vehicles, and structures.
 Fatigue behavior is typically assessed through fatigue tests to determine the material's
endurance limit and fatigue life.

Creep Strength:

 Creep strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation under prolonged

exposure to high temperatures and constant stress.
 Creep occurs when a material gradually deforms over time under constant load at
elevated temperatures, even below its melting point.
 Crucial in applications where materials are exposed to high temperatures for extended
periods such as turbines, boilers, and aerospace components.
 Materials with high creep strength can maintain their structural integrity and
dimensional stability under demanding conditions.
 Creep behavior is evaluated through creep tests, where samples are subjected to
constant stress at elevated temperatures over extended periods to assess their
deformation characteristics
 QUES.4. DEFINE MELTING POINT, BOILING POINT, AND FREEZING POINT

Boiling Point:

 The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals
the external pressure, typically atmospheric pressure.
 At the boiling point, a substance changes from its liquid state to its gaseous state.
 Boiling points vary depending on the atmospheric pressure; for example, water boils at
100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) at standard atmospheric pressure, but at
lower temperatures at higher elevations where atmospheric pressure is lower.

Freezing Point:

 The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from its liquid
state to its solid state.
 At the freezing point, the molecules in a substance lose enough thermal energy to form
a stable solid structure.
 The freezing point is the same as the melting point, but the term "freezing point" is
typically used when describing the transition from liquid to solid.

Melting Point:

 The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from its solid
state to its liquid state.
 At the melting point, the substance absorbs enough thermal energy to break the
intermolecular forces holding its solid structure together, transitioning into a liquid
state.
 The melting point is the same as the freezing point, but the term "melting point" is
typically used when describing the transition from solid to liquid
QUES.5. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON LOW CARBON STEEL AND HIGH CARBON STEEL
Low carbon steel
 also known as mild steel, contains a relatively low amount of carbon, typically between
0.05% to 0.25%.
 It is one of the most commonly used types of steel due to its affordability, ease of
manufacturing, and versatility.
 Low carbon steel exhibits good ductility and machinability, making it suitable for a wide
range of applications including construction, automotive manufacturing, machinery, and
appliances.
 While low carbon steel offers excellent weldability, formability, and toughness, it lacks
the strength and hardness of high carbon steels.
 Due to its lower carbon content, low carbon steel is not as hard or wear-resistant as high
carbon steel, making it less suitable for applications requiring high strength or abrasion
resistance.

High Carbon Steel:

 High carbon steel contains a higher concentration of carbon, typically between 0.60% to
1.0%.
 It is characterized by its high strength, hardness, and wear resistance, making it suitable
for applications where these properties are required.
 High carbon steel is commonly used in applications such as cutting tools, knives,
springs, and wires, where hardness and abrasion resistance are critical.
 While high carbon steel offers excellent strength and hardness, it tends to be more
brittle and less ductile compared to low carbon steels.
 High carbon steel requires careful heat treatment to achieve the desired balance of
hardness and toughness. Overheating or improper quenching can lead to brittleness
and reduced performance.
 Due to its higher carbon content, high carbon steel is more challenging to weld and
shape compared to low carbon steel, requiring specialized techniques and equipment
wear
QUES.6. SHORT NOTES ON HIGH SPEED STEEL AND INCONEL

High-Speed Steel (HSS) is a type of tool steel known for its exceptional hardness,
resistance, and ability to retain its cutting edge even at elevated temperatures. Here are
some key points about High-Speed Steel:

1. Composition: HSS contains high levels of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and

vanadium, in addition to carbon. These alloying elements contribute to its exceptional
hardness and heat resistance.
2. Applications: HSS is widely used in cutting tools such as drills, taps, milling cutters, and
lathe tools, where high-speed machining operations are required. It is also used in saw
blades, dies, and punches.
3. Properties: HSS exhibits excellent hardness, toughness, and wear resistance, making it
ideal for cutting and machining applications. It can withstand high temperatures
generated during machining without losing its cutting edge.
4. Heat Treatment: HSS undergoes specialized heat treatment processes such as
quenching and tempering to achieve the desired balance of hardness and toughness.
This heat treatment enhances its performance and extends its tool life.
5. Advantages: Compared to conventional tool steels, HSS offers superior cutting
performance, longer tool life, and increased productivity in high-speed machining
operations.

Inconel:

Inconel is a family of nickel-based superalloys known for their excellent resistance to

high temperatures, corrosion, and oxidation. Here are some key points about Inconel:

1. Composition: Inconel alloys are primarily composed of nickel, with significant additions
of chromium, iron, and other elements such as molybdenum, niobium, and cobalt. These
alloying elements contribute to its unique properties.
2. Applications: Inconel alloys are used in various industries including aerospace, chemical
processing, marine engineering, and gas turbines. They are employed in applications
requiring high-temperature strength, corrosion resistance, and reliability in harsh
environments.
3. Properties: Inconel alloys exhibit exceptional high-temperature strength, oxidation
resistance, and resistance to corrosion by acids, alkalis, and saltwater. They maintain
their mechanical properties at elevated temperatures, making them suitable for use in
extreme conditions.
4. Types: Different grades of Inconel are available, each tailored to specific applications.
For example, Inconel 600 is commonly used in heat exchangers and chemical processing
equipment, while Inconel 718 is used in aerospace components and gas turbine engines.
5. Fabrication: Inconel alloys can be fabricated using conventional methods such as
machining, welding, and forming. However, they are known for their high work
hardening rates, which can pose challenges during machining and forming operations.

QUES.7. WHAT IS FORGING AND CASTING

Forging:

 Forging is a manufacturing process that involves shaping metal by applying compressive

forces, typically using a hammer, press, or die.
 In forging, the metal is heated to a high temperature to make it more malleable and
then shaped using localized compressive forces.
 There are various types of forging processes, including open-die forging, closed-die
forging, and impression-die forging, each suited to different shapes and sizes of parts.
 Forging results in parts with improved mechanical properties, including higher strength,
better grain structure, and enhanced structural integrity due to the continuous grain
flow of the metal.
 Forged parts are commonly used in applications where strength, reliability, and
durability are critical, such as automotive components, aerospace parts, and hand tools.

Casting:

 Casting is a manufacturing process that involves pouring molten metal into a mold
cavity, where it solidifies and takes the shape of the mold.
 Casting can be performed using various methods, including sand casting, investment
casting, die casting, and continuous casting, each suitable for different types of parts
and production volumes.
 Casting is capable of producing complex shapes with intricate details and thin sections
that may be difficult or impossible to achieve through forging or other processes.
 While casting offers versatility and the ability to produce large quantities of parts at a
relatively low cost, cast parts may have lower mechanical properties compared to forged
parts, such as reduced strength and porosity.
 Cast parts are used in a wide range of industries and applications, including automotive,
aerospace, construction, and consumer goods, where complex shapes and large
production volumes are required.
QUES.8. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT ROLLING AND COLD ROLLING

Hot rolling and cold rolling are both metal forming processes used to shape metal
into desired forms, but they differ in temperature, mechanical properties of the material,
and the types of products they produce:

Hot Rolling;

Hot rolling is a metalworking process that involves rolling metal at high temperatures,
typically above the recrystallization temperature of the material.

 The metal is heated to temperatures above its recrystallization temperature to make it

more malleable and easier to deform.
 Hot rolling is commonly used to produce large, thick sections of metal, such as steel
plates, structural shapes, and railroad rails.
 During hot rolling, the metal undergoes plastic deformation, reducing its thickness and
increasing its length or width, depending on the direction of rolling.
 Hot rolled products typically have a rough surface finish and may require additional
processing, such as pickling or grinding, to achieve the desired surface quality.
 Cold Rolling:

 Cold rolling is a metalworking process that involves rolling metal at room temperature
or slightly above room temperature.
 Unlike hot rolling, cold rolling does not involve heating the metal, which results in
greater control over the mechanical properties of the material.
 Cold rolling is commonly used to produce thin sheets, strips, and foils of metal with
precise dimensions and surface finish.
 Cold rolled products have a smoother surface finish and tighter dimensional tolerances
compared to hot rolled products.
 Cold rolling can improve the mechanical properties of the material, such as strength,
hardness, and surface finish, due to the strain hardening and work hardening effects.
 Cold rolled products are used in a wide range of applications, including automotive
components, appliances, electronics, and construction materials.
QUES.9. PURPOSE OF HEAT TREATMENT
Certainly! Here are the purposes of heat treatment summarized in bullet points:

1. Alteration of Mechanical Properties: Heat treatment is used to modify the mechanical

properties of metals, including hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, and wear
resistance.
2. Improvement of Hardness: Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering
are employed to enhance the hardness of metals, making them suitable for wear-
resistant applications.
3. Enhancement of Strength: Heat treatment can increase the strength of metals by
refining their microstructure and promoting the formation of stronger phases, thus
improving their load-bearing capacity.
4. Modification of Ductility and Toughness: Heat treatment processes like annealing and
normalizing are used to improve the ductility and toughness of metals, making them
less prone to brittle fracture and more suitable for forming and machining.
5. Relief of Residual Stresses: Heat treatment is utilized to reduce or eliminate residual
stresses that may develop during manufacturing processes like machining, welding, or
forming, thereby improving the stability and dimensional accuracy of metal
components.
6. Adjustment of Electrical and Magnetic Properties: Heat treatment can alter the electrical
and magnetic properties of metals, influencing their conductivity, resistivity, and
magnetic permeability, which is beneficial for electrical and magnetic applications.
7. Refinement of Microstructure: Heat treatment processes enable the refinement of the
microstructure of metals, leading to improved grain size, distribution, and morphology,
which in turn enhances the overall properties and performance of the material.
8. Improvement of Machinability: Heat treatment can improve the machinability of metals
by reducing their hardness and enhancing their chip formation characteristics, resulting
in better surface finish and longer tool life during machining operations.
9. Control of Material Properties: Heat treatment allows for precise control over the
material properties of metals, enabling manufacturers to tailor the characteristics of the
material to meet specific performance requirements for various industrial applications.

In summary, heat treatment serves multiple purposes in metallurgy, allowing for

the optimization and customization of material properties to enhance the
performance, durability, and reliability of metal components in diverse industrial
sectors.

QUES.10. SHORT NOTES PN PEARLITE AND AUSTERNITE

Pearlite:

 Pearlite is a microstructure that forms in steels and certain other alloys when they
undergo certain heat treatment processes, such as annealing or slow cooling.
 It consists of alternating layers of ferrite (a solid solution of carbon in iron) and
cementite (an iron carbide phase with the chemical formula Fe3C).
 Pearlite forms when the steel or alloy is cooled slowly through the eutectoid
temperature, typically around 727°C (1341°F) for plain carbon steels.
 It is characterized by its lamellar structure, with the ferrite and cementite layers arranged
in thin parallel lamellae, giving it a distinctive appearance resembling mother-of-pearl.
 Pearlite contributes to the mechanical properties of the material, including strength,
hardness, and toughness, making it a desirable microstructure for many engineering
applications.

Austenite:

 Austenite is a phase of steel and certain other iron-based alloys that forms at high
temperatures.
 It is a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, with carbon atoms dissolved in the iron
matrix.
 Austenite is stable at elevated temperatures above the upper critical temperature (Ac3)
of the steel, typically around 723°C (1333°F) for plain carbon steels.
 It is non-magnetic and relatively soft compared to other phases of steel.
 Austenite is important in heat treatment processes such as annealing, hardening, and
tempering, where it undergoes phase transformations to form desired microstructures
 such as pearlite, bainite, or martensite, depending on the cooling rate and alloy
composition.
 Austenite is also present in some stainless steels, where it contributes to their corrosion
resistance and high-temperature strength.
QUES.11. WRITE IN DETAIL ANNEALING AND NORMALIZING

Annealing:

1. Purpose:
 Annealing is a heat treatment process used to soften metals, relieve internal
stresses, improve machinability, and refine the microstructure for better
mechanical properties.
2. Procedure: a. Heating:
 The metal is heated to a temperature above its critical temperature but below its
melting point. b. Soaking:
 The metal is held at the annealing temperature for a sufficient period to allow for
complete homogenization and transformation of the microstructure. c. Cooling:
 The metal is slowly cooled in the furnace, often with the furnace turned off or by
burying it in an insulating material like sand or ash to achieve a slow, controlled
cooling rate.
3. Effects: a. Softening:
 Annealing reduces the hardness and strength of the metal by promoting
recrystallization and grain growth, resulting in a more ductile and homogeneous
microstructure. b. Stress Relief:
 Annealing relieves internal stresses caused by previous manufacturing processes
such as machining, welding, or cold working, reducing the risk of distortion or
cracking. c. Refinement of Microstructure:
 Annealing promotes the formation of a uniform and fine-grained microstructure,
improving the material's mechanical properties and machinability.

Normalizing:

1. Purpose:
 Normalizing is a heat treatment process used to refine the microstructure,
improve mechanical properties, and enhance the uniformity of the material.
2. Procedure: a. Heating:
 The metal is heated to a temperature above its upper critical temperature,
typically around 30-50°C higher than the temperature used in annealing. b.
Soaking:
  The metal is held at the normalizing temperature for a short period to ensure
uniform heating throughout the material and complete transformation of the
microstructure. c. Cooling:
 The metal is air-cooled in still air or slightly agitated air, resulting in a moderate
cooling rate. This produces a fine-grained microstructure and reduces the risk of
distortion or cracking.
3. Effects: a. Grain Refinement:
 Normalizing promotes the formation of a fine-grained and uniform
microstructure, which improves the material's strength, toughness, and
machinability. b. Reduction of Segregation:
 Normalizing helps to reduce chemical segregation and improve the homogeneity
of the material, resulting in more consistent mechanical properties throughout
the product. c. Stress Relief:
 Normalizing relieves residual stresses and internal strains induced by previous
manufacturing processes, reducing the risk of distortion or cracking during
subsequent machining or use.

QUES.12. PURPOSE OF SURFACE HARDENING AND DEFINE

CARBURIZING
Purpose of Surface Hardening:

1. Enhances wear resistance: Surface hardening increases the hardness of the outer layer of a material,
making it more resistant to wear and abrasion.
2. Improves durability: By creating a harder surface layer, surface hardening extends the lifespan of
components subjected to high levels of wear and friction.
3. Increases strength: Surface hardening can enhance the strength of components, making them better able
to withstand mechanical stresses and loads.
4. Retains core toughness: While the surface becomes harder, the core of the material typically retains its
toughness, providing a balance between hardness and ductility.
5. Enhances performance: Surface-hardened components perform better in harsh environments, such as
those with high temperatures, pressures, or abrasive conditions.

Definition of Carburizing:

1. Carburizing is a heat treatment process used to increase the carbon content of the surface layer of a low-
carbon steel component.
2. Involves heating the component in a carbon-rich environment at elevated temperatures, typically between
850°C to 950°C (1562°F to 1742°F).
3. Carbon atoms diffuse into the surface of the metal, forming a carbon-rich layer.
4. After carburizing, the component is quenched and tempered to form a hardened surface with improved
wear resistance.
5. Carburizing is commonly applied in applications such as gears, bearings, and other components requiring
high wear resistance and surface hardness
QUES.13. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ANOUT CYANIDING AND NITRIDING
PROCESSS
here are detailed explanations of cyaniding and nitriding processes in points:

Cyaniding:

1. Preparation: The steel component is thoroughly cleaned to remove any contaminants or scale
on its surface.
2. Heating: The cleaned component is heated to a temperature typically ranging from 760°C to
870°C (1400°F to 1600°F) in a controlled atmosphere.
3. Immersion: The heated component is then immersed in a molten cyanide salt bath containing
sodium cyanide or potassium cyanide along with other additives.
4. Carbon and Nitrogen Diffusion: During immersion, carbon and nitrogen atoms from the
cyanide bath diffuse into the surface layer of the steel component, forming a carbonitrided layer.
5. Quenching: After achieving the desired case depth, the component is quickly quenched in a
suitable quenching medium such as oil or water to harden the surface layer.
6. Post-Treatment: Depending on requirements, the cyanided component may undergo
additional tempering or stress-relieving processes.

Nitriding:

1. Preparation: Similar to cyaniding, the steel component is cleaned to remove surface

contaminants.
2. Heating: The cleaned component is heated to a temperature typically ranging from 480°C to
580°C (900°F to 1075°F) in a nitriding furnace under a controlled atmosphere of ammonia gas.
3. Nitriding Reaction: Ammonia gas dissociates at the surface of the steel, releasing nascent
nitrogen atoms that diffuse into the steel and react to form hard nitride compounds such as iron
nitride (Fe3N) or iron-carbonitride (Fe4N).
4. Case Formation: Over time, nitrogen diffuses into the surface layer of the steel, forming a
hardened nitride case with improved wear resistance and fatigue strength.
5. Types of Nitriding: Variants include gas nitriding, plasma nitriding, and salt bath nitriding, each
offering unique advantages and suitable for specific applications.
6. Post-Treatment: After nitriding, the component may undergo additional treatments such as
tempering or polishing to optimize its mechanical properties and surface finish.

In summary, both cyaniding and nitriding processes involve heating steel components to high
temperatures in controlled atmospheres to introduce carbon and nitrogen into their surface
layers, resulting in hardened surfaces with improved wear resistance and durability.
 QUES.14. DEFINE ABOUT ROCKWELLHARDNESS TESTING AND
BARCOL TESTER

Rockwell Hardness Testing:

1. Definition: Rockwell hardness testing is a method used to determine the hardness of a material
by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the
penetration made by a preload.
2. Indenter Types: There are different types of indenters used in Rockwell testing, including ball
and cone-shaped indenters.
3. Test Procedure:
 A minor load is first applied to ensure proper contact between the indenter and the
material surface.
 A major load is then applied for a specific period, and once removed, the depth of
penetration is measured.
 Rockwell hardness is indicated by a scale value, typically denoted by symbols such as
HRA, HRB, HRC, etc.
4. Advantages:
 Offers a wide range of scales suitable for various materials.
 Provides relatively quick and easy measurements.
 Minimal sample preparation required.
5. Applications:
 Commonly used in the manufacturing industry to assess material hardness in metals,
plastics, and other materials.
 Used in quality control processes to ensure materials meet specified hardness
requirements.

Barcol Hardness Testing:

1. Definition: Barcol hardness testing is a method used primarily for assessing the hardness of soft
materials such as plastics, composites, and reinforced fiberglass.
2. Indenter Type: Barcol testers use a sharp steel indenter that is pressed into the material under a
spring-loaded force.
3. Test Procedure:
 The indenter is pressed into the material surface, and the hardness is indicated by the
depth of penetration.
 The penetration depth is read off a scale ranging from 0 to 100 Barcol units.
4. Advantages:
 Particularly suitable for assessing the hardness of thin materials or materials where
destructive testing is not feasible.
 Portable and relatively easy to use.
  Can provide quick and non-destructive measurements.
5. Applications:
 Widely used in industries such as marine, automotive, aerospace, and construction for
assessing the hardness of materials like fiberglass, plastics, and composites.
 Helps in quality control processes to ensure materials meet hardness requirements and
standards.
QUES.15. SHORT NOTES ON; ELASTIC LIMIT, PROOF STRESS, YIELD
STRENGTH
Elastic Limit:

 Definition: The elastic limit is the maximum stress that a material can withstand without
experiencing permanent deformation. Below the elastic limit, a material will return to its original
shape once the applied stress is removed.
 Behavior: Materials subjected to stress below their elastic limit will undergo elastic deformation,
where they stretch or compress in response to the applied force but return to their original
shape once the force is removed.
 Significance: The elastic limit is a critical parameter in material design and engineering
applications, as it defines the range within which a material can be safely loaded without causing
permanent damage or deformation.

Proof Stress:

 Definition: Proof stress, also known as proof strength, is the stress level at which a material
begins to exhibit noticeable plastic deformation. It is often used as a criterion for defining the
yield strength of a material.
 Determination: Proof stress is typically determined through testing methods such as tensile
testing, where the stress-strain curve of a material is analyzed to identify the point where plastic
deformation becomes evident.
 Importance: Proof stress provides a standardized measure for the onset of plastic deformation
in materials, aiding in material characterization and specification in engineering and
manufacturing processes.

Yield Strength:

 Definition: Yield strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it begins
to deform plastically, i.e., undergo permanent deformation. It is a crucial mechanical property
used to assess the load-bearing capacity of materials.
 Identification: Yield strength is often identified as the point on a stress-strain curve where the
material's behavior transitions from elastic deformation to plastic deformation. This transition is
characterized by a sudden increase in strain without a proportional increase in stress.
 Application: Yield strength is a key parameter in structural design, material selection, and
quality control processes. It helps engineers determine the maximum load that a material can
sustain without experiencing permanent damage or failure.