1.

Verb phrases

level: beginner
Verbs in English have four basic parts:
Most verbs are regular: they have a past tense and past participle with –
ed (worked, played, listened). But many of the most frequent verbs
are irregular.

Basic parts
Verbs in English have four basic parts:

Most verbs are regular: they have a past tense and past participle with –
ed (worked, played, listened). But many of the most frequent verbs
are irregular.
Verb phrases
Verb phrases in English have the following forms:

1. a main verb:

m
a
i
n

v
e
r
b

h
a e
W
r r
e
e e
.

l
i
i
I t
k
.
e

E s t
 m
a
i
n

v
e
r
b

h
e
v
e a
r c
y a c
b w i
o d
d e
y n
t
.

l
a
u
W g
e h
e
d
.
The verb can be in the present tense (are, like) or the past
tense (saw, laughed).

2. the auxiliary verb be and a main verb in the –ing form:

a
-
u
i
x
n
il
g
i
a
f
r
o
y
r
b
m
e

E w
v a
e t
r c
i
y h
s
b i
o n
d g
y .

W w l
e e a
r u
e g
h
i
 a
-
u
i
x
n
il
g
i
a
f
r
o
y
r
b
m
e

n
g
.

A verb phrase with be and –ing expresses continuous aspect. A verb

with am/is/are expresses present continuous and a verb
with was/were expresses past continuous.

3. the auxiliary verb have and a main verb in the past participle form:

A verb phrase with have and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A
verb with have/has expresses present perfect and a verb
with had expresses past perfect.
 4. a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would)
and a main verb:

m m
o a
d i
a n
l
v v
e e
r r
b b

c
T w
o
h i
m
e l
e
y l
.

m c
i o
H
g m
e
h e
t .

The verb phrase 1

The verb phrase 2

Level: intermediate
 5. the auxiliary verbs have and been and a main verb in the –ing form:

auxiliary have been -ing form

Everybody has been working

He had been singing.

A verb phrase with have been and the -ing form expresses both perfect
aspect and continuous aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present
perfect continuous and a verb with had expresses past perfect
continuous.

6. a modal verb and the auxiliaries be, have and have been:

v
e
r
b

l
i
s
t
e
n
v
e
r
b

i
n
g
.

a
r
r
i
v
e
d
.

l
i
s
t
e
n
i
n
g
 v
e
r
b

7. the auxiliary verb be and a main verb in the past participle form:

a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
y

b
e

i
s
a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
y

b
e

h
a
v
e

b
e
e
n

w
a
s

b
e
i
n
a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
y

b
e

w
i
l
l

b
e

m
i
g
h
t
a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
y

b
e

h
a
v
e

b
e
e
n

A verb phrase with be and the past participle expresses passive voice.
The verb phrase 3
The verb phrase 4

Level: advanced
We can use the auxiliaries do and did with the infinitive for emphasis:
It was a wonderful party. I did enjoy it.
I do agree with you. I think you are absolutely right.
We can also use do for polite invitations:
Do come and see us some time.
There will be lots of people there. Do bring your friends.

2.Irregular verbs

Level: beginner
Most verbs have a past tense and past participle with –ed:
worked
played
listened
But many of the most frequent verbs are irregular:

Base form Past tense Past participle

be was/were been

begin began begun

break broke broken

Base form Past tense Past participle

bring brought brought

buy bought bought

build built built

choose chose chosen

come came come

cost cost cost

Base form Past tense Past participle

cut cut cut

do did done

draw drew drawn

drive drove driven

eat ate eaten

feel felt felt

Base form Past tense Past participle

find found found

get got got

give gave given

go went gone

have had had

hear heard heard

Base form Past tense Past participle

hold held held

keep kept kept

know knew known

leave left left

lead led led

let let let

Base form Past tense Past participle

lie lay lain

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

pay paid paid

Base form Past tense Past participle

put put put

run ran run

say said said

see saw seen

sell sold sold

send sent sent

Base form Past tense Past participle

set set set

sit sat sat

speak spoke spoken

spend spent spent

stand stood stood

take took taken

Base form Past tense Past participle

teach taught taught

tell told told

think thought thought

understand understood understood

wear wore worn

win won won

 Base form Past tense Past participle

write wrote written

3.Questions and negatives

Level: beginner

Yes/No questions
Yes/No questions are questions which we answer with Yes or No. Look at
these statements:
They are working hard.
They will be working hard.
They had worked hard.
They have been working hard.
They might have been working hard.
We make Yes/No questions by putting the first part of the verb in front of
the subject:
Are they working hard?
Will they be working hard?
Had they worked hard?
Have they been working hard?
Might they have been working hard?
Yes/No questions 1
Yes/No questions 2

Negatives
We make negatives by putting not after the first part of the verb:
They are not working hard.
They will not be working hard.
They had not worked hard.
They have not been working hard.
They might not have been working hard.
In spoken English, we often reduce not to n’t:
They aren't working hard.
They won't be working hard.
They hadn't been working hard.
They haven't been working hard.
They mightn't have been working hard.
Negatives 1
Negatives 2

Present simple and past simple questions

and negatives
For all verbs except be and have, we use do/does or did to
make Yes/No questions in the present simple and past simple:
 They work hard. > Do they work hard?

He works hard. > Does he work hard?

They worked hard. > Did they work hard?

For all verbs except be and have, we use do/does + not or did + not to
make negatives in the present simple and past simple:

They work hard. > They do not (don't) work hard.

He works hard. > He does not (doesn't) work hard.

They worked hard. > They did not (didn't) work hard.

Here are the question forms and negative forms for be in the present
simple and past simple:
Positives Questions Negatives

I am (I'm) Am I? I am not (I'm not)

He is (he's) Is he? He is not (He's not/He isn't)

She is (she's) Is she? She is not (She's not/She isn't)

It is (it's) Is it? It is not (It's not/It isn't)

You are (you're) Are you? You are not (You're not/You aren't)

They are (they're) Are they? They are not (They're not/They are

Positives Questions Negatives

 I was Was I? I was not (I wasn't)

He was Was he? He was not (He wasn't)

She was Was she? She was not (She wasn't)

It was Was it? It was not (It wasn't)

You were Were you? You were not (You weren't)

They were Were they? They were not (They weren't)

We make questions and negatives with have in two ways. Usually we

use do/does or did:
Do you have plenty of time?
Does she have enough money?
Did they have any useful advice?
I don't have much time.
She doesn't have any money.
They didn't have any advice to offer.
but we can also make questions by putting have/has or had in front of
the subject:
Have you plenty of time?
Has she enough money?
Had they any useful advice?
and make negatives by putting not or n't after have/has or had:
I haven't much time.
She hasn't any money.
He hadn't any advice to offer.
Present simple and past simple questions and negatives 1
Present simple and past simple questions and negatives 2

Wh-questions
Wh-questions are questions which start with a word
like what, when, where, which, who, whose, why and how.
Question words

Questions with when, where, why

We form wh-questions with these words by putting the question
word in front of a Yes/No question:
 They are working in a shop. > Where are they work

They have been working hard for their exams. > Why have they been

They arrived at six. > When did they arrive

Questions with who, what, which

When we ask who, what and which about the object of the verb, we put the
question word in front of a Yes/No question:

He is seeing Joe tomorrow. > Who is he seeing tomorrow?

I want a computer for my birthday. > What do you want for your bir

I'd prefer some tea. > Which would you prefer, tea o
Wh-questions 1
When we ask who, what and which about the subject of the verb, the
question word takes the place of the subject:

Barbara gave me the chocolates. > Who gave you the chocolate

Something funny happened. > What happened?

The dog frightened the children. > Which dog frightened the ch

We sometimes use what or which with a noun:

What subjects did you study at school?
Which English newspaper started in 1986?
What subjects does everyone have to study?
Which newspaper do you prefer, The Times or the Guardian?
Wh-questions 2

Questions with how

We use how for many different questions:
How are you?
How do you make questions in English?
How long have you lived here?
How often do you go to the cinema?
How much is this dress?
How old are you?
How many people came to the meeting?
Questions with how 1
Questions with how 2

Questions with verbs and prepositions

When we have a question with a verb and a preposition, the preposition
usually comes at the end of the question:

I gave the money to my brother. > Who did you give the mon

She comes from Madrid. > Where does she come fro

They were waiting for an hour. > How long were they waitin

Questions with verbs and prepositions 1

Questions with verbs and prepositions 2
Level: intermediate

Other ways of asking questions

We sometimes use phrases like these in front of a statement to ask
questions:
Do you know …?
I wonder …
Can you tell me …?
For Yes/No questions, we use the phrases with if:

This is the right house. > Do you know if this is the right house?

Everyone will agree. > I wonder if everyone will agree.

Mr Brown lives here. > Can you tell me if Mr Brown lives here

For wh-questions, we use the phrases with a question word:

Do you know who lives here?
I wonder how much this dress is.
Can you tell me where she comes from?
We often use do you think …? after question words:
How much do you think this dress is?
Where do you think she comes from?
Who do you think lives here?
Indirect questions 1
Indirect questions 2

Negatives with the to-infinitive

 When we make a negative with the to-infinitive, we put not in front of the to-
infinitive:
He told us not to make so much noise.
We were asked not to park in front of the house.

4.Short forms

Level: beginner

Short answers
1. We often use short forms to answer questions. Usually we repeat
the first word of the verb phrase:

A: Can you come round tomorrow?

B: Yes, I can. / No, I can't.

A: Have you seen Jack lately?

B: Yes, I have. / No, I haven't.
A: Do you like living here?
B: Yes, I do. / No, I don't.
Sometimes we change the verb:
A: Will you come to the party?
B: Yes, we might.
A: Do you think they might come?
B: Yes, I think they will.

2. We often use verbs like think, suppose, expect and hope to answer
questions. When the answer is positive, we add so:

A: Can you come tomorrow?

B: I hope so.
A: Will they be at home?
B: I expect so.
When the answer is negative, we use don’t and so:
A: Is Amsterdam the capital of the Netherlands?
B: I don't think so.
but with hope we use not:
A: Do you think it's going to rain?
B: I hope not.

3. We often use adverbials

of probability like perhaps, probably, possibly, maybe, definitely an
d certainly as short answers:

A: Do you think it's going to rain?

B: Yes, possibly.
A: Can you come round tomorrow?
B: Definitely!
When the answer is negative, we put not after the adverbial:
A: Do you think it's going to rain?
B: Probably not.
A: Can you come round tomorrow?
B: Maybe not.
Short answers

Agreeing and disagreeing

4. We can use short forms to agree or disagree with what someone says.
Usually we repeat the first word of the verb phrase:

A: It's a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is.
A: I think they might have missed their train.
B: Yes, I think they might.
A: The children will be coming to see us next week.
B: No, they won't. They're going to their grandparents'.
Sometimes we change the verb:
A: The children will be coming to see us next week.
B: Yes, they might.
A: The children might be coming to see us next week.
B: No, they won't. They're going to their grandparents'.
We use do/does/don't/doesn't to agree or disagree with statements in
the present simple:
A: Your grandmother looks very well.
B: Yes, she does.
A: I think Jack lives here.
B: No, he doesn't.
and we use did/didn't for the past simple:
A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.
B: Yes, they did.
A: The children went to Malaysia last year.
B: No, they didn't. They went to Singapore.
Agreeing and disagreeing 1
Agreeing and disagreeing 2

Tags
5. We sometimes put a short tag at the end of an agreeing comment.
We use a Yes/No question form for the tag. If the comment is
positive, we normally use a negative tag:

A: It's a lovely day.

B: Yes, it is, isn't it?
A: Your grandmother looks very well.
B: Yes, she does, doesn't she?
A: Everybody really enjoyed the trip.
B: Yes, they did, didn't they?
If the comment is negative, we normally use a positive tag:
A: They didn't seem to enjoy the trip very much.
B: No, they didn't, did they?

A: It's not a very nice day.

B: No, it isn't, is it?

A: They haven't done much.

B: No, they haven't, have they?

6. Sometimes we put a tag at the end of a statement:

It's a lovely day, isn't it?

Your grandmother looks very well, doesn't she?
They haven't done much, have they?
They all seemed to enjoy the trip, didn't they?
Tags 1
Tags 2

so and neither/nor
7. We use so and neither/nor to add to what other people say. We
use so to add to a positive statement:

A: John is working in Barcelona.

B: So is Maria. (= Maria is working in Barcelona too.)
A: I love Indian food.
B: Yes, so do I. (= I love Indian food too.)

A: They've just bought a new computer.

B: Really? So have we. (= We’ve also bought a new computer.)
We use neither or nor to add to a negative statement:
A: I don't smoke any more.
B: Neither do I. (= I also don't smoke.)
A: They haven't written to us for ages.
B: Nor has Peter. (= Peter hasn't written to us for ages too.)
A: We won't be taking a holiday this year.
B: Neither will we. (= We also won't be taking a holiday this year.)
A: I never have time for breakfast.
B: Nor have I. (= I am as busy as you.)
so and neither/nor 1
so and neither/nor 2

Short questions
8. We often use short forms to ask questions when we want more
information:

A: I'll see you on Monday.

B: What time?
A: We are going on holiday next week.
B: Where?
A: You can get a new computer very cheaply.
B: How?
If we want to be more polite, we can use a longer question:
A: I'm going to London on Monday.
B: What time are you going?
A: We are going on holiday next week.
B: Where are you going?
A: You can get a new computer very cheaply.
B: How can I do that?

9. We often use questions with What about … or How about … to refer

back to what we’ve just said:

A: I love the Beatles. What about you?

B: Yes, me too.
A: Your father seems well. What about your mother?
B: Yes, she's fine too.
A: I'm exhausted. How about you?
B: No, I'm fine.
A: I really enjoyed the film. How about you?
B: No, I didn't like it very much.

10. We can use echo questions to check what someone has just said. In
this kind of question, we repeat the first word of the verb phrase:

A: They've just had a baby.

B: Have they?
A: He'll be here soon.
B: Will he?
or we use do/does/did:
A: Sophie wants to move to another school.
B: Does she?
A: George phoned last week.
B: Did he?
Short questions 1
Short questions 2

Leaving words out

11. When we speak, we can often leave words out if our meaning is
still clear. For example, we could use any of these to offer someone a
cup of coffee:

Would you like a cup of coffee?

You like a cup of coffee?
Like a cup of coffee?
A cup of coffee?
Cup of coffee?
Coffee?
and someone could reply:
Yes, please. I would like a cup.
Yes, please. I would.
Yes, please.
Please.

12. We often leave words out to avoid unnecessary repetition:

I asked him to come but he wouldn't come.

Jack can come but Jill can't come.
He didn't come even though she asked him to come.
Jack wanted to come but Jill didn't want to come.
He opened the door and he went in.
They play billiards but they do not play snooker.
I know George but I do not know his brother.
She likes Indian food but she does not like Chinese food.

5.The verb 'be'

Level: beginner
The verb be has the following forms:

The verb be

Infinitive form be

Present simple: + I am, I'm We are, we're

You are, You're You are, you're
He/She/It is, He/She/It's They are, they'
The verb be

Am I? Are we?
? Are you? Are you?
Is he/she it? Are they?

We are not, We
I am not, I’m not
You are not, Yo
You are not, You aren’t, You're not
- They are not, T
He/She/It is not, He/She/It isn’t, He's
not
not

Past simple I was We were

+ You were You were
He/She/It was They were

Was I? Were we?

? Were you? Were you?
Was he/she/it? Were they?

- I was not, I wasn't We were not, W

The verb be

You were not, You weren't You were not,

He/She/It was not, He/She/It wasn't They were not,

Past participle been

Present perfect has/have been

Past perfect had been

Present participle being

Present
am/is/are being
continuous
 The verb be

Past continuous was/were being

We use the infinitive form be with modal verbs:

It will be dark soon.
They might be tired.
The verb be is a link verb. It is used:

 with a noun phrase:

My mother is a teacher.
Bill Clinton was the president of the US.

 with an adjective:

This soup is very tasty.

The children were good.

 with a prepositional phrase:

John and his wife are from Manchester.

The flowers are on the table.
am, is, are 1
am, is, are 2
am, is, are, was, were 1
am, is, are, was, were 2
Level: intermediate

 with the -ing form to make the continuous aspect:

We were walking down the street. Everything was wet.

It had been raining for hours.
  with the past participle to make the passive voice:

The house was built in 1890.

The street is called Montague Street.
This car was made in Japan.
be in continuous and passive forms 1
be in continuous and passive forms 2
Level: advanced
We use some nouns with the verb be followed by a that clause:
The problem was that I had no money.
The obvious explanation is that he simply forgot.
The danger is that the whole thing might catch fire.
It's a pity that the children aren't here.
The lucky thing is that nobody was hurt.
Nouns commonly used in this way are:

answer hope
argument idea
assertion (a) pity
belief rule
claim (a) shame
explanation thing
feeling

We use some nouns with the verb be followed by a to-infinitive:

The only way is to start all over again.
His answer is to work a bit harder.
Her only hope was to find a new job as soon as possible.
The easiest thing would be to ask your father.
Nouns commonly used in this way are:

answer promise
decision thing
hope way
idea wish
 intention

To comment on statements, we use some adjectives with it and the

verb be and a that clause or wh-clause:
It's lucky that we met.
It's not clear what happened.
It was amazing how he managed to escape.
Adjectives commonly used in this way are:

awful lucky
bad obvious
clear possible
extraordinary probable
funny sad
good true
interesting unlikely

6. Present tense

Level: intermediate
There are two tenses in English: past and present.
The present tense is used to talk about the present and to talk about
the future.
There are four present tense forms:

Present simple I work

 Present continuous I am working

Present perfect I have worked

Present perfect continuous I have been working

We can use all these forms:

 to talk about the present:

London is the capital of Britain.

He works at McDonald’s.
He is working at McDonald's.
He has worked there for three months now.
He has been working there for three months now.

 to talk about the future:

The next train leaves this evening at 17.00.

I'll phone you when I get home.
He is meeting Peter in town this afternoon.
I'll come home as soon as I have finished work.
You will be tired out after you have been working all night.
Present tense 1
Present tense 2
Level: advanced
We can use present forms to talk about the past:

 when we are telling a story:

Well, it's a lovely day and I'm just walking down the street when I see this
funny guy walking towards me. Obviously he's been drinking, because he's
moving from side to side …

 when we are summarising something we have read, heard or seen:

I love Ian Rankin's novels. He writes about this detective called Rebus.
Rebus lives in Edinburgh and he's a brilliant detective, but
he's always getting into trouble. In one book, he gets suspended and
they tell him to stop working on this case. But he takes no notice …

7.Past tense

Past tense
There are two tenses in English – past and present.
The past tense in English is used:

 to talk about the past

 to talk about hypotheses (when we imagine something)
 for politeness.

There are four past tense forms in English:

Past simple: I worked

Past continuous: I was working

 Past simple: I worked

Past perfect: I had worked

Past perfect continuous: I had been working

We use these forms:

 to talk about the past:

He worked at McDonald's. He had worked there since July.

He was working at McDonald's. He had been working there since July.

 to refer to the present or future in hypotheses:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost.

This use is very common in wishes:
I wish it wasn't so cold.
and in conditions with if:
He could get a new job if he really tried.
If Jack was playing, they would probably win.
For hypotheses, wishes and conditions in the past, we use the past perfect:
It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn't spent so much money last month.
I would have helped him if he had asked.
and also to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:
Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.

8.Perfect aspect

Level: intermediate
We use perfect aspect to look back from a specific time and talk about things
up to that time or about things that are important at that time.
We use the present perfect to look back from the present:
I have always enjoyed working in Italy. [and I still do]
She has left home, so she cannot answer the phone.
We use the past perfect to look back from a time in the past:
It was 2006. I had enjoyed working in Italy for the past five years.
She had left home, so she could not answer the phone.
We use will with the perfect to look back from a time in the future:
By next year I will have worked in Italy for 15 years.
She will have left home by 8.30, so she will not be able to answer the phone.

Present perfect
We use the present perfect:

 for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

They've been married for nearly 50 years.

She has lived in Liverpool all her life.

 when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

I've seen that film before.
I've played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.
He has written three books and he is working on another one.

 for something that happened in the past but is important in the

present:

I can't get in the house. I've lost my keys.

Teresa isn't at home. I think she has gone shopping.
We normally use the present perfect continuous to emphasise that
something is still continuing in the present:
It's been raining for hours.
I'm tired out. I've been working all day.

Past perfect
We use the past perfect:

 for something that started in the past and continued up to a later

time in the past:

When George died, he and Anne had been married for nearly 50 years.
She didn't want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.

 when we are reporting our experience up to a point in the past:

My eighteenth birthday was the worst day I had ever had.

I was pleased to meet George. I hadn't met him before, even though I had
met his wife several times.

 for something that happened in the past and is important at a later

time in the past:

I couldn't get into the house. I had lost my keys.

Teresa wasn't at home. She had gone shopping.
We use the past perfect continuous to show that something started in the
past and continued up to a time in the past or was important at that time
in the past:
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a
teenager.

Modals with the perfect

We use will with the perfect to show that something will be complete at or
before some time in the future:
In a few years they will have discovered a cure for the common cold.
I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then.
We use would with the perfect to refer to something that did not happen in
the past:
If you had asked me, I would have helped you.
I would have helped you, but you didn't ask me.
You didn't ask me or I would have helped you.
We use other modals with the perfect when we are looking back from a point
in time. The point of time may be in the future:
We'll meet again next week. We might have finished the work by then.
I will phone at six o'clock. He should have got home by then.
or the present:
It's getting late. They should have arrived by now.
He's still not here. He must have missed his train.
or the past:
I wasn't feeling well. I must have eaten something bad.
I checked my mobile phone. She could have left a message.

9.Continuous aspect

Level: intermediate
We use continuous aspect:

 for something happening before and after a specific time:

He's getting on the train. (before and after the moment of speaking)
It was a quarter past ten. We were watching the news on television.

 for something happening before and after another action:

Mother will be cooking the dinner when we get home.

We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

 for something continuing for some time:

Everybody will be waiting for us.

They had been working hard all day.

 for something happening again and again:

They've been doing that every day this week.

The children were always shouting.
He will be practising the piano every night.

 for something temporary:

We are renting an apartment until our house is ready.

He was working in a garage during the vacation.

 for something new:

We have moved from Birmingham. We're living in Manchester now.

He had left university and was working in his father's business.

 to describe something changing or developing:

Everything has been getting more difficult.

He was growing more bad-tempered every day.
Continuous aspect 1
Continuous aspect 2
We can use continuous aspect:

 with perfect aspect:

How long have you been sitting there?

I don't know how long she had been learning Spanish.
  with modal verbs:

Your friends will be looking for you.

They might be playing tennis.

 with both modal verbs and perfect aspect:

You should have been driving more carefully.

Soon we will have been living here for 25 years.
Continuous aspect 3
Continuous aspect 4
We do not normally use the continuous aspect with stative verbs. We use
the simple instead:
I don't understand you. (NOT am not understanding)
When I got home, I really needed a shower. (NOT was needing)
I've always liked John. (NOT been liking)

10.Modal verbs

Level: beginner
The modal verbs are:

can could
may might
must
shall should
will would

We use modals to show if we believe something is certain, possible or

impossible:
My keys must be in the car.
It might rain tomorrow.
That can't be Peter's coat. It's too small.
We also use them to do things like talk about ability, ask permission,
and make requests and offers:
I can't swim.
May I ask a question?
Could I have some tea, please?
Would you like some help?
Modal verbs

 Probability
 Ability
 Permission
 Requests, offers and invitations
 Suggestions and obligations
 'can' and 'could'
 'may' and 'might'
 'will' and 'would'
 'will have' and 'would have'
 Modals with 'have'
Level: beginner
The modal verbs are:

can could
may might
must
shall should
will would

We use modals to show if we believe something is certain, possible or

impossible:
My keys must be in the car.
It might rain tomorrow.
That can't be Peter's coat. It's too small.
We also use them to do things like talk about ability, ask permission,
and make requests and offers:
I can't swim.
May I ask a question?
Could I have some tea, please?
Would you like some help?
Modal verbs

 Probability
 Ability
 Permission
 Requests, offers and invitations
 Suggestions and obligations
 'can' and 'could'
 'may' and 'might'
 'will' and 'would'
 'will have' and 'would have'
 Modals with 'have'

11. Active and passive voice

Level: beginner
Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms:

active passive

The hunter killed the lion. > The lion was killed by th
 active passive

Someone has cleaned the windows. > The windows have been

Passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:

be past participle

English is spoken all ov

The windows have been cleaned.

Lunch was being served.

The work will be finished soon

 be past participle

They might have been invited to the

If we want to show the person or thing doing the action, we use by:
She was attacked by a dangerous dog.
The money was stolen by her husband.
Active and passive voice 1
Active and passive voice 2
Active and passive voice 3
Level: intermediate
The passive infinitive is made up of to be with a past participle:
The doors are going to be locked at ten o'clock.
You shouldn't have done that. You ought to be punished.
We sometimes use the verb get with a past participle to form the passive:
Be careful with that glass. It might get broken.
Peter got hurt in a crash.
We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb:

active passive

I gave him a book for his birthday. > He was given a book for h
 active passive

Someone sent her a cheque for a thousand euros. > She was sent a cheque fo

We can use phrasal verbs in the passive:

active passive

They called off the meeting. > The meeting was called off.

His grandmother looked after him. > He was looked after by his gr

They will send him away to school. > He will be sent away to schoo

Active and passive voice 4

Active and passive voice 5
Level: advanced
Some verbs which are very frequently used in the passive are followed by
the to-infinitive:
 be supposed to be expected to be asked to be

be scheduled to be allowed to be invited to be

John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting.

You are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.

12.'to'-infinitives

Level: beginner

Verbs with to-infinitives

We use the to-infinitive after certain verbs (verbs followed by to-infinitive),
particularly verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose hate like prefer

decide hope love remember
expect intend mean want
forget learn plan would like/love

They decided to start a business together.

Remember to turn the lights off.
and verbs of saying:
 agree promise refuse threat

We agreed to meet at the cinema.

Promise to call me every day.
Some verbs are followed by a direct object and then the to-infinitive:

advise intend remind would like/

ask invite tell would pref
encourage order want
expect persuade warn

He encouraged his friends to vote for him.

Remind me to give Julia a call.
Verbs with to-infinitive 1
Verbs with to-infinitive 2

Infinitive of purpose
We also use the to-infinitive to express purpose (to answer why?):
He bought some flowers to give to his wife.
He locked the door to keep everyone out.
We can also express purpose with in order to and in order not to:
We started our journey early in order to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children.
or so as to and so as not to:
We started our journey early so as to avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.
Infinitive of purpose 1
Infinitive of purpose 2
Level: intermediate

Adjectives with to-infinitives

We use the to-infinitive after certain adjectives:

able due likely prepar

unable eager unlikely willing
anxious keen ready unwilli

Unfortunately, I was unable to work for over a week.

I'm really tired. I'm ready to go to bed.
Sometimes the to-infinitive gives a reason for the adjective:

amazed glad proud so

delighted happy relieved su
disappointed pleased sad un

We were happy to come to the end of our journey.

(= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey.)
John was surprised to see me.
(= He was surprised because he saw me.)
We often use it + be followed by an adjective to give opinions:

clever foolish nice

difficult hard possible
easy kind impossible
It's easy to play the piano, but it's very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly that it was impossible to understand him.
We use the to-infinitive with these adjectives to give opinions about people:

clever kind right

foolish nice wrong

She was right to complain about that hotel.

You were clever to find the answer so quickly.
We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to:

difficult easy hard possible imp

It was difficult for us to hear what she was saying.

It is easy for you to criticise other people.
With the other adjectives, we use the preposition of:
It's kind of you to help.
It would be silly of him to spend all his money.
Adjectives with to-infinitive 1
Adjectives with to-infinitive 2
Level: advanced

Nouns with to-infinitives

We use the to-infinitive as a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after abstract
nouns like:

ability desire opportunity

 attempt failure refusal
chance need wish

They gave him an opportunity to escape.

He was annoyed by her refusal to answer.
I have no desire to be rich.
There is no need to shout.
We often use the to-infinitive as a postmodifier after indefinite pronouns:
When I am travelling I always take something to read.
I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.

12. '-ing' forms

Level: beginner
We can use the -ing form of a verb:

 as a noun:

I love swimming.
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.

 as an adjective:

The main problem today is rising prices.

That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.

-ing forms as nouns

-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns. They can be used:
  as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy.

 as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English.

Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit like hate start av

suggest enjoy dislike begin fin

 as the object of a preposition :

Some people are not interested in learning English.

-ing form as a noun

-ing forms as adjectives

The -ing adjective can come:

 in front of a noun:

I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.

We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.

 after a link verb like be, look or sound:

Your new book sounds very interesting.

The children can be really annoying.
  after a noun:

Who is that man standing over there?

The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother

 especially after verbs of the senses like see, watch, hear, smell, etc.:

I heard someone playing the piano.

I can smell something burning.
The commonest -ing adjectives are:

amusing interesting worrying

boring surprising exciting
disappointing tiring frightening

-ing form as an adjective

Patterns with -ing forms

Because an -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb, it can have any of
the patterns which follow a verb. For example:

 it can have an object:

I like playing tennis.

I saw a dog chasing a cat.

 it can be followed by a clause:

I heard someone saying that he saw you.

14.Talking about the present

Level: intermediate
We use the present simple to talk about:

 something that is true in the present:

They live next door to us.

He works for the Post Office.

 something that happens regularly in the present:

The children come home from school at about four.

We often see your brother at work.

 something that is always true:

Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

The Nile is the longest river in Africa.
We use the present continuous to talk about:

 something happening at the moment of speaking:

I can't hear you. I'm listening to a podcast.

Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.

 something happening regularly in the present before and after a

specific time:

I'm usually having breakfast at this time in the morning.

When I see George he's usually reading his Kindle.

 something in the present which we think is temporary:

Michael is at university. He's studying history.

I love Harry Potter. I'm reading the last book.

 something which is new and contrasts with a previous state:

Nowadays people are sending text messages instead of phoning.

I hear you've moved house. Where are you living now?

 something which is changing, growing or developing:

The weather is getting colder.
Our grandchildren are growing up quickly.

 something which happens again and again:

It's always raining in London.

They are always arguing.
George is great. He's always laughing.
Note that we normally use always with this use.
We use modal verbs:

 to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:

I don't know where Henry is. He might be playing tennis.

'Who's knocking at the door?' – 'I don't know. It could be the police.'

 to talk about things like ability (can) and obligation (should):

I can speak English quite well but I can't speak French at all.
You should do your homework before you go out.

15.Talking about the past

Past events and situations

We use the past simple to talk about:

 something that happened once in the past:

The film started at seven thirty.

We arrived home before dark.

 something that was true for some time in the past:

Everybody worked hard through the winter.

We stayed with our friends in London.
When we talk about something that happened several times in the past, we
use the past simple:
Most evenings, we stayed at home and watched DVDs.
Sometimes they went out for a meal.
or used to:
Most evenings, we used to stay at home and watch DVDs.
We used to go for a swim every morning.
or would:
Most evenings, he would take the dog for a walk.
They would often visit friends in Europe.
We do not normally use would with stative verbs. We use the past
simple or used to instead:
He would looked much older than he does now. (NOT would look)
We would used to feel very cold in winter. (NOT would feel)
Past simple, used to and would 1
Past simple, used to and would 2
We use the past continuous:

 for something that happened before and after a specific time in the
past:

It was just after ten. I was watching the news on TV.

At half-time we were losing 1–0.

 for something that happened before and after another action in the
past:

He broke his leg when he was playing rugby.

She saw Jim as he was driving away.
Past simple and past continuous 1
Past simple and past continuous 2

The past in the past

We use the past perfect when we are looking back from a point in the past
to something earlier in the past:
Helen suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car.
When we had done all our shopping, we caught the bus home.
They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn't saved enough money.
They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.

16.Talking about the future

Level: intermediate
When we know about the future, we normally use the present tense.
1. We use the present simple for something scheduled:
We have a lesson next Monday.
The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.
The holidays start next week.
It's my birthday tomorrow.
2. We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:
I'm playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We're having a party at Christmas.
3. We use will:

 when we express beliefs about the future:

It will be a nice day tomorrow.

I think Brazil will win the World Cup.
I'm sure you will enjoy the film.

 to mean want to or be willing to:

I hope you will come to my party.

George says he will help us.

 to make offers and promises :

I'll see you tomorrow.

We'll send you an email.

 to talk about offers and promises:

Tim will be at the meeting.
Mary will help with the cooking.
4. We use be going to:

 to talk about plans or intentions:

I'm going to drive to work today.

They are going to move to Manchester.

 to make predictions based on evidence we can see:

Be careful! You are going to fall. (= I can see that you might fall.)
Look at those black clouds. I think it's going to rain. (= I can see that it will
rain.)
5. We use will be with an -ing form for something happening before and
after a specific time in the future:
I'll be working at eight o'clock. Can you come later?
They'll be waiting for you when you arrive.
6. We can use will be with an -ing form instead of the present continuous
or be going to when we are talking about plans, arrangements and
intentions:
They'll be coming to see us next week.
I'll be driving to work tomorrow.
7. We often use verbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to
talk about the future:
What are you going to do next year? I'd like to go to university.
We plan to go to France for our holidays.
George wants to buy a new car.
8. We use modals may, might and could when we are not sure about the
future:
I might stay at home tonight or I might go to the cinema.
We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes.
9. We can use should if we think there's a good chance of something
happening:
We should be home in time for tea.
The game should be over by eight o'clock.
Talking about the future 1
Talking about the future 2

The future in time clauses and if-

clauses
In time clauses with words like when, after, until we often use present tense
forms to talk about the future:
I'll come home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
In clauses with if we often use present tense forms to talk about the future:
We won't be able to go out if it is raining.
If Barcelona lose tomorrow, they will be champions.

Be careful!

We do not normally use will in time clauses and if-clauses:

I'll come home when I finish work. (NOT will finish work)
We won’t be able to go out if it rains. (NOT will rain)
but we can use will if it means want to or be willing to:
I will be very happy if you will come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
17.Verbs in time clauses and 'if'
clauses

level: beginner
Verbs in time clauses and conditionals usually follow the same patterns as
in other clauses but there are some differences when we:

 talk about the future

 make hypotheses.

Talking about the future

In time clauses with words like when, after and until, we often use present
tense forms to talk about the future:
I'll come home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
In conditional clauses with words like if, unless, even if, we often
use present tense forms to talk about the future:
We won't be able to go out if it is raining.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.
Even if Barcelona lose tomorrow, they will still be champions.
We do not normally use will in time clauses and conditional clauses:
I'll come home when I finish work. (NOT will finish work)
We won't be able to go out if it rains. (NOT will rain)
It will be nice to see Peter when he gets home. (NOT will get home)
You must wait here until your father comes. (NOT will come)
but we can use will if it means want to or be willing to:
I will be very happy if you will come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
Future time and conditional clauses 1
Future time and conditional clauses 2
Level: intermediate

Making hypotheses
Some conditional clauses are like hypotheses, so we use past tense
forms.
We use past tense forms to talk about something that does not happen or is
not happening in the present:
He could get a new job if he really tried.
(= He cannot get a job because he has not tried.)
If Jack was playing, they would probably win.
(= Jack is not playing so they will probably not win.)
If I had his address, I could write to him.
(= I do not have his address so I cannot write to him.)
We use past tense forms to talk about something that we believe or know will
not happen in the future:
We would go by train if it wasn't so expensive.
(= We will not go by train because it is too expensive.)
I would look after the children for you at the weekend if I was at home.
(= I cannot look after the children because I will not be at home.)
We use past tense forms to make suggestions about what might happen in
the future:
If he came tomorrow, we could borrow his car.
If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.
After I/he/she/it, we can use were instead of was:
If Jack was/were playing, they would probably win.
We would go by train if it wasn't/weren’t so expensive.
I would look after the children for you at the weekend if I was/were at home.
We use the past perfect to talk about something which did not happen in
the past:
If you had seen him, you could have spoken to him.
(= You did not see him so you could not speak to him.)
You could have stayed with us if you had come to London.
 (= You could not stay with us because you did not come to London.)
If we hadn't spent all our money, we could take a holiday.
(= We have spent all our money so we cannot take a holiday.)
If I had got the job, we would be living in Paris.
(= I did not get the job, so we are not living in Paris.)
If the main clause of a hypothetical conditional is about the present or
future, we use a modal:
If I had got the job, we might be living in Paris now.
(= I did not get the job so we are not living in Paris now.)
If you had done your homework, you would know the answer.
(= You did not do your homework so you do not know the answer.)
If the main clause is about the past, we use a modal with have:
If I had seen him, I would have spoken to him.
(= I did not see him so I did not speak to him.)
You could have stayed with us if you had come to London.
(= You could not stay with us because you did not come to London.)
If you had invited me, I might have come.
(= You did not invite me so I did not come.)

18.Wishes and hypotheses

Wishes
We use the verb wish or the phrase if only to talk about things which we
want but which are not possible:
I wish I could see you next week.
If only we could stop for a drink.
I wish we had a bigger house.
They are always busy. If only they had more time.
John was very lazy at school. Now he wishes he had worked harder.
We use wish and if only with past tense forms:

 We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for
the future:
I don't like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
That's a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
I always have to get home early. If only my parents would let me stay out
later.

 We use past simple and continuous to talk about wishes for the
present:

I don't like this place. I wish I lived somewhere more interesting.

These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
I wish I was taller.
John wishes he wasn't so busy.
I'm freezing. If only it wasn't so cold.

 After I/he/she/it, we can use were instead of was:

I wish I was/were taller.

John wishes he wasn't/weren't so busy.
I'm freezing. If only it wasn't/weren't so cold.

 We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:

I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.

Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
Wishes 1
Wishes 2

Hypotheses (things we imagine)

Expressions
When we are talking about hypotheses, we use expressions like:
 what if ... ? in case suppose (that) supposing (that) i

We use these expressions:

 with present tense forms to talk about the present or future if we think
something is likely to be true or to happen:

We should phone them in case they are lost.

Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.

 with past tense forms to talk about the present or future to suggest
something is not likely to be true or to happen:

Imagine you won the lottery. What would you do with the money?
What if he lost his job? What would happen then?

 with the past perfect to talk about things in the past which did not
happen:

Suppose you hadn't passed your exams. What would you have done?
What if he had lost his job? What would his wife have said?

Modal verbs
We use modals would and could for a hypothesis about the present or
future:
We can't all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.
Drive carefully or you could have an accident.
We use would in the main clause and the past tense in a subordinate
clause for a hypothesis about the present or future:
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in
the past:
I didn't see Mary, or I might have spoken to her.
It's a pity Jack wasn't at the party. He would have enjoyed it.
Why didn't you ask me? I could have told you the answer.
We use would have in the main clause and the past perfect in a
subordinate clause to talk about something that did not happen in the past:
I would have helped anyone who had asked me.
I would have helped you if you had asked me.

Clause structure and verb patterns

Clause structure
All clauses in English have at least two parts, a noun phrase (subject) and
a verb phrase:

Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

The children laughed.

All the people in the bus were watching.

But most clauses have more than two parts:

 Noun phrase (subject) Verb phrase

John wanted a new bicycle.

All of the girls are learning English.

This soup tastes awful.

Mary and the family were driving to Madrid.

She put the flowers

The first noun phrase of a sentence is the subject. English clauses always
have a subject:
His father has just retired. He was a teacher. (NOT Was a teacher.)
I'm waiting for my wife. She is late. (NOT Is late.)
except for the imperative, which is used for orders, invitations and requests:
Stop!
Please come to dinner tomorrow.
Play it again, please.
If we have no other subject, we use there or it. We call this a dummy
subject:
There were twenty people at the meeting.
There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.
It's a lovely day.
It's nearly one o’clock.
What's the subject?

Verb patterns
Different verbs have different patterns, so the structure of the clause depends
on the verb.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Most verbs in English are either transitive or intransitive. A transitive
verb has the structure noun + verb + noun:

Noun (subject) Verb Noun (object)

John wanted a new bicycle.

Transitive verbs need an object. Common transitive verbs are:

 bring enjoy make wa
buy like take we

An intransitive verb has the structure noun + verb:

Noun (subject) Verb

John smiled.

Intransitive verbs do not have an object. Common intransitive verbs are:

arrive die happen sm

cry fall laugh wo

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive:

She sang a wonderful aria. Transitive: N + V + N

We were singing. Intransitive: N + V

We were playing football. Transitive: N + V + N

We were just playing. Intransitive: N + V

Common verbs like this are:

 draw help ride watc
follow learn study writ

Transitive or intransitive?

Other patterns
Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive, but the object when they are
transitive is the same as the subject when they are intransitive:

Peter closed the door. Transitive: N + V + N

The door closed. Intransitive: N + V

I boiled some water. Transitive: N + V + N

The water boiled. Intransitive: N + V

These are called ergative verbs.

There are other kinds of verb patterns. For example:

 link verbs have the structure Noun + Verb + Adjective

(She looks happy) or Noun + Verb + Noun (He became a teacher).
 some two-part verbs can have the structure Noun + Verb + Particle +
Noun (She gave back the money) or Noun + Verb + Noun + Particle
(She gave the money back).
 double object verbs have the structure: Noun + Verb + Noun + Noun
(Peter sent his mother some flowers).
 verbs followed by the infinitive (We planned to take a holiday.)
 verbs followed by the -ing form (I love swimming.)
  verbs with that, wh- and if clauses (She said that …,
He explained what …, He asked if … .) These are often reporting
verbs.

Verb patterns

 Link verbs
 Multi-word verbs
 Double object verbs
 Verbs followed by the infinitive
 Verbs followed by the '-ing' form
 Reporting verbs with 'that', 'wh-' and 'if' clauses
 Reported speech
 Ergative verbs

20.Delexical verbs: 'have', 'take',

'make', 'give', 'go' and 'do'

Level: beginner
We often use common verbs like have and take with nouns like a shower, a
drink:
I took a shower. (= I showered.)
She had a drink. (= She drank something.)
We call these delexical verbs because the important part of the meaning is
taken out of the verb and put into the noun.
We often put adjectives in front of the noun:
I took a cold shower.
She had a nice, refreshing drink.
The verbs used most frequently in this way are:
 have take make g

have
We use have with:

have ...

food and drink a meal, breakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea

talking a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk

washing a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub

resting a break, a holiday, a rest

 have ...

disagreeing an argument, a dispute, a fight, a quarrel

I had a good breakfast before I left home.

We had a long talk about the problem.
The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.
She generally had a short holiday in July or August.
They had a serious quarrel about their father's will.
We also use have with nouns formed from verbs:
I think you should have a look at this.
She had a bite of the cake.
I'm thirsty. I'm going to have a drink of water.
I had a listen to that new CD in the car.
They are going to have a swim.
Delexical verbs 1: have

take
We use take with:

washing a bath, a shower, a wash

resting a break, a holiday, a rest

I always take a cold shower in the morning.
You look tired. You need to take a break.
and with these words:

care a turn trouble a chance a de

care of turns the trouble a risk a ph

We took hundreds of photographs on holiday.

Jane always takes a lot of trouble with her homework.
We also use take with some nouns formed from verbs:
I think you should take a look at this.
Let's take a walk.
They are going to take a swim.
Delexical verbs 2: take
Delexical verbs 3: have and take

give
We use give with:

noises a cry, a laugh, a scream, a shout, a whistle

 facial
a smile, a grin, a look, a glance
expressions

hitting a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow

affectionate
a hug, a kiss, a stroke
actions

some advice, an answer, some information, an interview, a lecture

talking
report, a speech, a talk, a warning

She gave a loud laugh.

John gave a happy smile.
He gave me a nasty kick on the leg.
She gave the children a goodnight kiss and put them to bed.
I have to give a speech at the meeting tomorrow.
Delexical verbs 4: give

make
We use make with:
 talking and sounds a comment, an enquiry, a noise, a point, a promise, a sound, a s

plans arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans, an appointme

Try not to make a noise.

They made arrangements to meet the next day.
Delexical verbs 5: make
Delexical verbs 6: give and make

go
We also use go as a delexical verb:
Shall we go swimming this afternoon? Or shall we go for a walk?
Mum and Dad have gone shopping.
We're going dancing tonight. Do you want to come?
We use go with -ing verbs for common activities:
We usually go walking at the weekend.
He goes running every evening after supper.
Mum's out. She's gone shopping.
We use go for a with verbs to do with moving:

a jog a ride a swim a run a stroll

I want to get out of here. Let's go for a walk.

He's gone for a ride on his bike.
Delexical verbs 7: go

do
We use do with -ing nouns to do with work, especially work in the house:
It's your turn to do the cooking.
You do the washing up and I'll do the drying.
and with other nouns to do with work:
I need to do a few jobs around the house.
I can't come out this evening. I have a lot of work to do.
We use do with nouns when it is obvious what the action is:
I'll have to do my hair before we go out. (= I'll have to brush my hair.)
Have you done your teeth? (= Have you cleaned your teeth?)
A question like
Have you done the car?
could mean
Have you washed the car?
Have you mended the car?
Have you put petrol in the car?
depending on the context.