Treatment of water

and wastewater
 Types of treatment methods
i. Physical unit operations: Screens ,Mixing,
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration,
floatation.

ii. Chemical unit processes : precipitation(pH),

aeration, adsorption, disinfection

iii. Biological unit processes : activated sludge ,

aerated lagoons (aerobic, anaerobic )
Term Unit operations and unit processes is not essentially adhered to and used
interchangeably irrespective of whether change is physical ,chemical or biological
 WATER TREATMENT(Objectives)
• Public health protection-pathogens & heavy
metal removal(As,Cr)
• Aesthetics-taste , odour, turbidity & colour
• Economics-softening of hard water
• Industrial use-boiler feed, dying(Fe,Mn)soft
drinks(MPN),pharmaceuticals, cooling water
• Others-swimming pool(pH,Cl2),corrosion(pH)
Chemicals(Silicates),biofouling
 Treatment methods
• Storage & plain sedimentation
• Coagulation
• Filtration
• Disinfection
• Aeration (Fe,Mn removal)
• Use of activated carbon(taste, odour removal)
• Chemical methods(water softening)
• Advanced treatments(reverse osmosis, ion
exchange, electrodialysis)
 Conventional Surface Water Treatment

Raw water

Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Screening

• Removes large solids

– logs
– branches
– rags
– fish
• Simple process
– may incorporate a mechanized trash
removal system
• Protects pumps and pipes in WTP
Sedimentation
 INTRODUCTION
• Sedimentation, or clarification, is the process of letting
suspended material settle by gravity (sP>1) at low
velocity.
• Suspended material (clay or silts) or flocs created from
material in the water and the chemical used in
coagulation or in other treatment processes.
1. Sedimentation under gravity(Plain sedimentation)
2. Sedimentation under use of coagulants(rapid
sedimentation)
 Sedimentation: Effect of the particle
concentration
• Dilute suspensions
– Particles act independently
– No increase in size& shape
– Settle with constant velocity (discrete settling)
• Concentrated suspensions(floccuant
settling)
– Particle-particle interactions are significant
– Particles may collide and stick together (form
flocs) settling quickly
– At very high concentrations particle-particle
forces may prevent further consolidation
Comparison of Type I and II sedimentation
Stokes law : ➢ Spherical Particle dia <0.1mm
➢ laminar flow with RN ≤1

gd ( −  ) gd (s − s ) gd (s − 1)
2 2 2

V = = S f
= S f p

18 18 18

S

Vs = Settling velocity, cm/sec

g = Acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
μ = Absolute viscosity, g/cm.sec (100 centipoise)
ρs or ρp = Density of particle, gm/cm3
ρf or ρ = Density of fluid. gm/cm3
d = Dia of particle, cm
 = kinematic viscosity cm2/sec (100 centistoke)
sS = specific gravity of particle
Sf or S = specific gravity of fluid or water
 Sedimentation of Small Particles?
• How could we increase the sedimentation rate
of small particles?
Increase d (stick particles together)

d g ( p −  w )
Increase g (centrifuge)
2

Vt =
Increase density difference
(dissolved air flotation)

18
Decrease viscosity (increase
temperature)
In WT, settling of particles is achieved
by the use of sedimentation tanks.
 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES
Settling zone

Outlet zone
Influent with Clarified effluent

Inlet zone
suspended load

Sludge zone

Sludge out
Inlet zone
• The inlet or influent zone should provide a smooth transition
from the influent flow and should distribute the flow
uniformly across the inlet to the tank.
• The normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow
across the total inlet of the tank and prevent short circuiting
in the tank.
• The baffle could include a wall across the inlet, perforated
with holes across the width of the tank.
 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES

• Basin inlets should be designed to minimize high flow

velocities near the bottom of the tank.
• If high flow velocities are allowed to enter the sludge
zone, the sludge could be swept up and out of the
tank.
• Sludge is removed for further treatment from the
sludge zone by scraper or vacuum devices which
move along the bottom.
 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES

Settling Zone
• The settling zone is the largest portion of the
sedimentation basin.
• This zone provides the calm area necessary for the
suspended particles to settle.

Sludge Zone
• The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank,
provides a storage area for the sludge before it is
removed for additional treatment or disposal.
 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES
Outlet Zone
• The basin outlet zone should provide a smooth transition
from the sedimentation zone to the outlet from the tank.
• This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in the
basin.
• Weirs set at the end of the tank control the overflow rate and
prevent the solids from rising to the weirs and leaving the
tank before they settle out.
Detention time
Theoretical time for which particle will stay in sedimentation tank

td=volume of tank/inflow rate=V/Q

Specified on basis of average flow rate

Actual time =flow through time
 Ideal settling tank characteristics
1. Flow direction horizontal
L=length of settling zone
2. Flow velocity uniform in all parts of settling zone
D=depth of settling zone
W=width of settling zone
3. Particle is removed as it touches bottom of settling zone
Vs=settling velocity of particle W
Vw=horizontal velocity of water
Q=inflow to tank Q VW D
V=volume of tank
As=surface area of tank VS

L
Settling time ts=D/Vs ; detention time=td=L/Vw where
Vw=Q/D.W
To get desired settling with most efficient tank size we want ts=td
occurs when td=L/Vw= ts=D/Vs ;
Vs/Vw=D/L
►Vs=(Vw.D.W)/(L.W) Multiply and divide by W
Vs=Q/As=overflow rate…………(eq.1)
Also Vs=Q.D/As.D =D/(As.D/Q)= D/(V/Q) Multiply and divide by D
Vs=D/td=depth/detention time……...(eq.2)
 Conclusions
• The settling velocity of particle depends upon overflow rate
i.e surface area. So if a smaller overflow rate is maintained (i.e
greater surface area is provided), then the corresponding Vs
will be smaller (even finer particles will be removed). This
means to remove finer particles greater surface area of the
tank.
• Eq:1 doesn’t include the parameter of depth. Therefore the
efficiency of an ideal tank is theoretically independent of
depth, and is governed by overflow rate only.
 Design Criteria
Sedimentation Tank

Min. # of tanks Two

Water depth 3-5m (2m or deep tanks 6.5m also used)
Detention time 2~8hrs
Overflow rate 20~33m3/m2/day (m/day)
weir loading rate ≤250m3/m/day
Sludge storage 20% extra volume required
 Design Criteria Rectangular Sedimentation Tank

Length 30m
Width 10m(13m max)
L:W ≤ 4:1(2:1 generally )
Bottom slope 1-2%(w/o scrapers)

Design Criteria circular Sedimentation Tank

Dia 30m(max)
Depth 3-5m
Bottom slope 8%(hopper bottom + scrapers)
RECTANGULAR BASINS
 Circular Clarifiers
Peripheral Feed
Clarifier

Center Feed Clarifier

Overflow Weir Configuration
An oil skimmer is a machine that separates
a liquid from particles floating on it or from
another liquid
 Problem questions
Q1.Calculate the settling velocity of a sand particle
0.1 mm in size at 10OC.SS=2.65, ν=1.3097 centi
Stokes
Q 2.Design a sedimentation tank to treat a flow of
25000m3/day; Surface Overflow rate
(SOR)=25m/day; D.t=2hrs;sludge storage
capacity 20% of effective volume. Under ideal
conditions what particle size will be removed if
ν=1.2 centi Stokes; SS=2.65
Q 3.Design a sedimentation tank to serve a
population of 15,000 persons with an average
water consumption of 350 lpcd.
 Coagulation
• Aggregation of small particles using chemicals to
increase their size hence SETTLING VELOCITY
• physical-chemical process whereby particles are
destabilized
• Colloid particles(0.01-1μm)
Why Colloidal Particles do not settle
1. Large ratio of surface area to volume
Vol = 1 cm3 S.A = 6 cm2 S.A/Vol = 6
1cm

0.1mm Vol = 1×10-6 cm3 S.A = 6×10-4 cm2 S.A/Vol = 600

2.Surface charge
 Coagulation
(1) Coagulation
Destabilize the particle by neutralizing the –ve charge, it’s a
aggregation of small particles using chemical to increase the
diameter and hence settling velocities
(2) Flocculation
It’s a slow mixing process to bring destabilized particle in contact to
form FLOC which settles down in sedimentation tank

Coagulant pH range Common use

Alum Al2(SO4)3 4.0-7.0 Municipal water supplies

Ferrus sulphate >8.5 Industrial water

Ferric chloride 3.6-6.5>8.5 Industrial water

Ferric sulphate 3.5-7 >9 Industrial water

 Coagulation Chemistry
(1) Alum Al2(SO4)3.18H2O dissociate in water to form Al+3
ion and so4-2 ions.
Al2(SO4)3 . 18 H2O 2Al+3 + 3SO4-2
(2)Al+3 ions combine with negatively charged collides to
reduce their –ve charge.
(3) Hydrolysis of Alum result in formation of a GEL LIKE
Al(OH)3 which may develop +ve charge by absorbing
+ve ions from the solution i.e H+ ions.
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 6 H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3SO4-2 + 18H2O+6H+
(4) Gel like Al(OH)3 adsorb SO4-2 and colloids from the
solution and is precipitated out.
 Use of lime
• Hydrolysis of alum produces H+ (pH drop)
• Stops formation of Al(OH)3
• Natural alkalinity acts as buffer
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 →2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O+ 6CO2
(600) (3x100)

Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 →2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O

(600) (3x100) Lime

For each 1mg/l of alum, 0.5mg/l of alkalinity are required

 Coagulation-flocculation unit
Qc (coagulant dose)

For water

Destabilization in Flocculation
rapid mix unit
 VELOCITY GRADIENT “G”
• G is defined as the slope of relative velocity
between fluid elements OR rate of change of
fluid velocity normal to the direction of
velocity
• G is a measure of INTENSITY OF MIXING
• G =(V1-V2)/O

• Flocculation results from the velocity

differences in the water which causes contact
between the moving flocculant masses.
Velocity differences also cause SHEARING
STRESSES along planes in the water.
 Coagulation in water treatment plant-
Flash mixer
• Coagulation done by FLASH MIXING
• RAPID MIXING of coagulant to give good
distribution of the chemical (require a high
degree of turbulence and power dissipation)
methods used for flash mixing.
1. Hydraulic jump
2. Paddle mixers
Detention time 10-20 seconds
Speed of Rotation 150 to 1500 rpm
Power Required 2 to 5 kW per m3/min.
Velocity Gradient: 300 - 500 sec-1
 Flocculation tank
• Slow mixing process
• Bring destabilized particles in contact to form
flocs
• circular tanks with paddles on vertical shaft
• rectangular tanks with paddles revolving on
horizontal shaft
• Area of paddle=10-20% vertical X-sectional area
of tank

Detention time 20-60 minutes

Paddle speed 20-30 rpm
Velocity Gradient: 25- 65 sec-1
Some typical flocculation basins are shown here:
 Baffled flocculators

4/8/2021 water treatment 36

Baffled flocculators: simple technology

4/8/2021 water treatment 37

 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATORS
• The design of FLOCCULATORS is generally based
upon G
P
• Where G=
V

P = Power Input,Kgm2/sec3 (Watts)

 = absolute viscosity, kg/m.sec
V = volume of tank, m3
 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATORS
for rotating paddles Cd V 3 A
P=
Where 2
CD = Drag co-efficient 1.8 to 1.5 for paddles.
A = Total area of paddles, m2
P = Mass density of fluid, Kg/m3
Vr = Relative velocity or velocity differential of
paddles in water, usually about 0.7 – 0.75 –
0.8 of paddle tip speed, m/sec
=2πrn (r=distance of centreline of the paddle
from shaft;n=revolution of paddle /second)
 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATORS:
For baffled flocculators
g H
G=
 td
Where
ν = kinematic viscosity, m2/sec
td = detention time in the flocculator, sec
H = Head losses in flocculator, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2