Tooth form in mammals 45

Figure 1.24 Cercopothecidae, upper right and lower left permanent dentitions.

Order Carnivora
Teeth in carnivores are adapted primarily for particular roles in hunting, catching,
killing and butchering prey. The incisors are small relative to the rest of the dentition,
with pointed crowns packed close together into a comb-like structure which is used
for grooming the animal’s protective fur. Throughout the dentition, the cingulum
forms a broad cervical bulge which protects the gingivae. The canines are prominent
points (Figure 1.26), in a range of sizes and sharpness, which are used for holding
and dispatching prey either by strangulation or stabbing. Most of the premolars
are compressed buccolingually, into backward-hooking, pointed blades which do
not necessarily meet when the jaws are closed, and presumably have a function in
catching and holding prey. The most characteristic teeth of the carnivores, however,
are the blade-like carnassial teeth that shear against one another to cut through
meat and skin. In the permanent dentition, the carnassials are the upper fourth
premolar and lower first molar and, in the deciduous dentition, the upper third
46 Teeth

Figure 1.25 Hominidae, human upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous
dentitions.

premolar and lower fourth premolar take on this role (Figure 1.27). In the upper
carnassial, the main cutting edge is formed by development of the paracone and
the metacone/metastyle crest (Figure 1.4), with the protocone reduced to a low
mound in most genera. The parastyle is present at the mesial base of the paracone,
but varies greatly in prominence. In lower carnassials, the main cutting edge is
formed from high ridges of the protoconid and paraconid, whilst the other cusp of
the trigonid area, the metaconid, is reduced. The talonid of this tooth remains as a
low crushing area in most families, but is much reduced in cats and hyaenas. Other
molars, where present, are bunodont and adapted to crushing bones or other hard
foods. The upper molars characteristically have higher buccal cusps, with a lower
lingual area, and show a large variation in relation to function which is very helpful
for identification.
The form of the teeth follows the dietary specialisation of the animals, which
varies both within and between families. More generalised carnivores and omni-
vores tend to have less developed carnassial blades, with more strongly developed
crushing molars. Specialist hunters have more strongly blade-like carnassials and
reduced crushing teeth. Thus most of the variation useful in identification is seen in
 Tooth form in mammals 47

Figure 1.26 Carnivore canines. The canines curve mostly in an anterior–posterior

plane. Lower canines also curve to lateral, with a more curved root, often marked with
a mesial groove. Upper and lower crowns are marked on the distal side by a ridge, and
bulge at the cervix, on the posterior side of the tooth. The mesial side is diagonally
placed because the dental arcade turns a corner at this point. It is marked with a small
tubercle and ridge at the cervix, which curves to occlusal at this point.

the cheek teeth. Many of the carnivore families originally had a worldwide distribu-
tion – except for Australasia and a number of other islands. This includes the bears
(Ursidae), the badgers, weasels etc. (Mustelidae), dogs (Canidae) and cats (Felidae).
The hyaenas (Hyaenidae) are nowadays confined to Africa and western Asia, but
were once found in Europe too. The civets, genets and mongooses (Viverridae) are
found in south-west Europe, Africa and southern Asia, whereas the racoons and
their relatives (Procyonidae) are confined to the New World and a small area of
eastern Asia.

Family Canidae
Dogs, wolf: CanisEU,AF,AS,AM ; Cape hunting dog: LycaonAF ; foxes:
VulpesEU,AF,AS,AM , AlopexEU,AS,AMN , UrocyonAM ; dhole: CuonAS ; racoon-dog:
NyctereutesASE,JA
3 1 3 3 1 4 2
di , dc , dp → i , c , p , m
3 1 3 3 1 4 3
This is a family of generalised carnivores, taking a range of prey from small insects
to large herbivores, either as solitary or pack hunters, and some of the smaller
genera also eat plant foods. Their dentition is less reduced and specialised than
in most other carnivore families (Figures 1.27–1.29). Permanent upper carnassials
48 Teeth

Figure 1.27 Canidae, Canis upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous
dentitions. Dimensions are lengths of tooth row from canine to most distal molar.

have a long blade, with a protocone of moderate size, whilst lower carnassials
have a prominent protoconid/paraconid blade associated with a somewhat reduced
metaconid, and an extensive talonid ‘heel’ at the distal end. Deciduous carnassials
are similar in form, with finer blades and spindly, wide-spaced roots. The permanent
upper molars are relatively large for a carnivore in most of the canid genera, to form
an extensive crushing area. Canis and Lycaon are the biggest members of the family,
with a very similar, robustly built dentition (with perhaps a slightly greater degree of
first premolar reduction in Canis). Domestication of wolf/dog in the archaeological
record is marked by dental reduction (p. 270), and more recent dogs show a very
wide range in size, including the smallest canids. Cuon is smaller than wolf, and
distinguished by higher, markedly blade-like carnassials, prominent pointed buccal
cusps in the upper first molar and reduction in the rest of the crushing molars.
Tooth form in mammals 49

Figure 1.28 Canidae, upper right permanent dentitions. Dimensions are lengths of
tooth row from canine to second molar.
50 Teeth

Figure 1.29 Canidae, lower left permanent dentitions. Dimensions are lengths of tooth
row from canine to second molar.
 Tooth form in mammals 59

Figure 1.36 Felidae, Felis upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous
dentitions. Dimensions are lengths of tooth row from canine to most distal premolar or
molar.

Panthera contains the largest felid species (the Pleistocene lions of Eurasia and
North America were amongst the largest Carnivora of all time), there is a great deal
of overlap in size between smaller species. The extinct sabre-tooths, however, were
clearly different, both in anterior and cheek teeth (Merriam & Stock, 1932; Meade,
1961). Their upper canines were greatly enlarged, with strong ridges running down
their length (marked with serrations), whereas the lower canines were so reduced
that they looked almost like a continuation of the incisor row (Figure 1.37). The
upper second premolar was lacking in both Homotherium and Smilodon, the upper
third premolar reduced (particularly in Homotherium), and the parastyle of the
upper carnassial was elaborated by an additional cusp. The lower third premolar
60 Teeth

Figure 1.37 Felidae, big cats. Upper and lower permanent left canines, premolars and
molars seen from lingual side. Drawn at a much smaller scale than Figure 1.36.

was missing. The function of the upper canine sabres has been the subject of much
discussion (Turner & Antón, 1997).

Family Ursidae
Bears: UrsusEU,AS,AM , SelenarctosAS , Tremarctos[AM] , Arctodus[AM] ; polar bear:
ThalarctosARC ; giant panda: AiluropodaASE
3 1 3−4 2
i ,c ,p ,m
3 1 3−4 3
Bears have varied dietary habits. Thalarctos feeds mainly on seals and fish, but also
takes deer, is notorious for raiding human larders, and eats tundra plants during the
summer. Ursus and Selenarctos are more markedly omnivorous, with proportions
of meat and plants in the diet that vary between seasons and locations, whilst the
giant panda Ailuropoda largely feeds on bamboo, but occasionally catches and
eats small creatures. The dentition of bears is robust (Figures 1.38–1.39), with
reduced premolars and expanded, bunodont molars, adapted to their omnivorous
diet. The upper fourth premolar is only just recognisable as the carnassial, and the
lower first molar has such an expanded talonid that the carnassial blade is relatively
insignificant. The cusps of the molars are gathered up to a rim around the edge of
the occlusal surface, the centre of which is lower, and marked by rough tubercles.
Selenarctos, Tremarctos and Arctodus all have four closely spaced premolars in both
upper and lower cheek tooth rows, whereas Ursus and Thalarctos have three. The
latter genera also have narrower lower first molars and smaller remaining molars,
110 Teeth

Figure 1.76 Hydrochaeris, upper right and lower left permanent cheek teeth.
Dimensions are lengths of tooth row from mesial side of fourth premolar to distal side
of third molar.

Order Lagomorpha
This group of small mammals varies rather little dentally. The upper lip and nostrils
together are enclosed in a small chamber, the rhinarium, which can be opened and
closed. Like the rodents, lagomorphs have no canines and the cheek teeth are sepa-
rated from continuously growing incisors by a broad diastema. Unlike rodents, there
112 Teeth

Figure 1.77 Lagomorpha. Buccal view of left Lepus dentition. Isometric view of upper
right and lower left cheek teeth of Ochotona. Dimensions are lengths of tooth row
from most mesial premolar to third molar.
Figure 1.86 Equus, upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous dentitions.
Dentine is shaded dark grey and cement paler grey.
 Figure 1.87 Sus, upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous dentitions.

Family Tayassuidae
Peccaries: TayassuAMC , Mylohyus[AM] , Platygonus[AM]
2 1 3 3
i ,c ,p ,m
2−3 1 3 3
The peccaries are the pig-like animals of the New World, mostly confined to South
and Central America, but spreading into the USA. Their main points of difference
with the Suidae are their somewhat narrower snouts (and therefore narrower dental
arcade), their generally less robust dentition (Figure 1.88) in which the subsidiary
cusps of the molars are reduced, and their sharp canine tusks (Figure 1.89), which
curve in a cranial–caudal plane rather than out to lateral. Males and females are the
same size, and the tusks are rooted (open-rooted in the young), with a clearly defined
crown coated with enamel. Upper canines develop an attrition facet on their mesial
surface, and lower canines on the distal surface. The collared peccary Tayassu is
Figure 1.89 Suidae and Tayassuidae canine tusks. Sus upper and lower left canines,
males and females. Tayassu upper and lower left canines, lingual views and sections.
The tusks are shown as they naturally lie when placed on a table.
 Figure 1.92 Cervus, upper right and lower left permanent and deciduous dentitions.

The Bovidae all have horns (with a bony core covered by a permanent horny
sheath), particularly the males, and have more hypsodont teeth than other rumi-
nants. Subdivision of the bovids is controversial, but many authors divide them
into five subfamilies. The Bovinae are large, solidly built beasts including oxen,
bison, buffalo, kudu, eland and bluebuck. Cephalophinae, or duikers, are all small
Figure 1.93 Bos, Cervus and Camelus, isometric views of upper right and lower right
permanent first molars (Bos deciduous fourth premolar), in various states of wear.
Cervus is shown only in the unworn state, because Figure 1.92 illustrates the worn
state. The unworn Camelus molars do not have any developing roots at the state of
development shown, but they are present in the worn specimens.
Figure 1.94 Cervidae, occlusal views of upper right and lower left permanent cheek
teeth. N.B. Scale is larger than Figure 1.95 but smaller than Figure 1.96.
Measurements are lengths of the cheek tooth row in millimetres.
Figure 1.95 Bovidae, large sized (with Camelus for comparison), occlusal views of upper right and lower left permanent cheek teeth.
N.B. Scale is smaller than Figures 1.94 and 1.96.
Figure 1.96 Bovidae, small sized, occlusal views of upper right and lower left permanent cheek teeth. N.B. Scale is larger than
Figures 1.94–1.95.