Routes of Industrial Hazards in Human Body

Industrial Hazards:
Hazard is a term associated with a substance that is likelihood to cause an injury in a given
environment or situation.
Industrial hazard may be defined as any condition/substance produced by industries that may cause
injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property.
Industrial Hazard categories
i) Chemical hazards
ii) Gas hazards
iii) Dust explosion
iv) Fire and explosion hazards
v)) Biological hazards

i) Chemical Hazards:

Chemical hazards are posed by toxic germicides (e.g- formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde), sterilizing
gases ( i.e- ethylene oxide), reaction gases ( Carbon mono-oxide)
• Some chemicals have the potential to cause fires and explosions and other serious
accidents.
• Chemical exposure may cause or contribute to many serious health effects such as heart
diseases, central nervous system damage, kidney and lung damage, sterility, cancer, burns
and rashes.
• Chemicals may be found in solid, liquid, aerosol or gas and vapor form.

The degree of danger varies according to the form of the chemicals and the factors like,
➢ It’s physical properties (pH, Acidic/basic, flammable)
➢ It’s toxicity
➢ The route of exposure (Eye, respiratory, skin)

Chemical agents can be classified into –

1. Metals – Lead, Tel, As, Hg, Cd, Ni, Co
2. Aromatic Hydrocarbons- Benzene, Toluene, Phenol
3. Aliphatic Hydrocarbons- Methyl alcohol
4. Gases- N2, CH4, CO2, CO, H2S, Cl2.

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TLV Concept:
➢ Threshold Limit Value – Time weighted Average (TLV- TWA)
Time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8 -hour working day and a 40-hour
working week, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day,
without adverse effect.
➢ Threshold limit value _ Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV- STEL)
It is defined as 15 minutes, time -weighted average which should not be exceeded at any
time during a working day, even if the 8 hours time- weighted average is within the TLV.
Hazardous gases:
Several volatile and flammable liquids are employed in the industries. These liquids get vaporized
when exposed to at or above the room temperature causing air pollution. The vapour gets ignited
causing fire accidents and explosions. Further, they tend to spread rapidly into the surrounding
area.
Combustible gases
▪ Explosion hazard
▪ Must maintain below lower explosive limit
Toxic gases
▪ Hazardous to human health
▪ Employee exposure must be limited
Oxygen displacing gases
▪ Indirect human health hazard
▪ Deficiency of breathing oxygen
Oxygen deficiency:
Oxygen symptoms developed,

20.9% Normal oxygen concentration in air

15-19% Decreased ability to work simultaneously
12-14% Respiration increases in exertion, pulse up, impairment,
coordination, perception and judgement
8-10% Mental failure, unconsciousness, nausea and vomiting
6-8% 8 min, 100 % fatal, 6 min, 50 % fatal, 4-5 min, recovery with
treatment
4-6% Coma in 40 seconds, respiration ceases, death

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Route of exposure of industrial hazards into human body
For a chemical to exert a toxic effect on an organism, it must first gain access to the cells and
tissues of that organism. In humans, the major routes by which toxic chemicals enter the body are
through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption.
a) Ingestion
Ingestion brings chemicals into contact with the tissues of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
The normal function of the tract is the absorption of foods and fluids that are ingested, but
the GI tract is also effective in absorbing toxic chemicals that are contained in the food or
water.
The degree of absorption generally depends upon the hydrophilic (easily soluble in water)
or lipophilic (easily soluble in organic solvents or fats) nature of the ingested chemical.
b) Inhalation
Inhalation brings chemicals into contact with the lungs. Most inhaled chemicals are gases
(e.g., carbon monoxide) or vapors of volatile liquids (e.g., trichloroethylene).
Absorption in the lung is usually great because the surface area is large and blood vessels
are in close proximity to the exposed surface area.
Gases cross the cell membranes of the lung via simple diffusion, with the rate of absorption
dependent upon the solubility of the toxic agent in blood. If the gas has a low solubility
(e.g., ethylene), the rate of absorption is limited by the rate of blood flow through the lung,
whereas the absorption of readily soluble gases (e.g., chloroform) is limited only by the
rate and depth of respiration.
Inhalation of air contaminants is probably the most important route of entry of chemicals to
the body in industrial situations. A worker exposed to 1000 parts per million (ppm) of
toluene vapor, over an 8-hr work shift, could be expected to show dramatic symptoms of
eye and respiratory irritation and depression of the central nervous system (CNS).
Symptoms of exposure to chemicals through inhalation include eye, nose, and throat
irritation, coughing, difficulty in breathing, headache, dizziness, confusion, and collapse.

Toxicity of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Amount of H2S in air Toxic Symptoms

1 ppm Oder detected, irritation of respiratory tract
10 ppm Allowable for 8 hours exposure
20 ppm Protective equipment is necessary
100 ppm Smell killed in 5 to 10 minutes
May burn eyes and throats, coughing
500 ppm Respiratory disturbances in 2 to 15 minutes
Coughing, collapse and unconsciousness
1000 ppm Immediate unconsciousness
Brain damage may result unless rescued promptly
Death in 3 to 5 minutes
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c) Absorption (Through eye and skin)

Symptoms of eye exposure can include itchy or burning sensations, blurred vision, discomfort, and
blindness.

Dermal Absorption

Dermal absorption allows the passage of compounds across the three skin layers—the
epidermis (Figure (E)), dermis (Figure (D)), and hypodermis (Figure (H))
The dermis and hypodermis, but not epidermis, contain an interconnected network of
vessels characterized by regular structures on all levels. Two networks of blood vessels are
present in the skin: a superficial network at the interface between the papillary and reticular
dermis and a lower network located on the border between the dermis and hypodermis.
Vertical vessels connect both networks. The skin's blood vessel system supplies the cells
and tissue with nutrients and oxygen, regulates the blood pressure, regulates the body
temperature, and provides a barrier against absorption.

Figure . Mechanism of dermal transport. A sketch of skin cross-section showing epidermis (E),
dermis (D), and hypodermis layers, main artery and vein, blood capillaries penetrating different
layers of skin, and hydrophilic intercellular channels (1). Chemicals or particles are absorbed by
the skin via penetration (2), permeation (3: intercellular routes and 4: hair shaft route), and
resorption (5).

Dermal absorption can be divided into three steps (Schaefer and Schalla, 1980):
• Penetration is the entry of a substance via the skin layers. The compound or particle may
accumulate in a particular layer of stratum corneum (Figure (2)) or enter the blood supply
(Figure (5)).
• Permeation is the movement of chemicals through one layer (Figure (3 and 4)) into another
via hydrophilic channels (Figure (1)).
• Resorption is the uptake of a substance into the vascular system (lymph and/or blood
vessel), which acts as the central compartment (Figure (5)). Dermal absorption is the total
sum of the three processes.

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Dermal absorption happens when a chemical goes through the skin and travels into the body. Many
chemicals used in the workplace can damage organs if they penetrate the skin and enter the
bloodstream. Examples of these chemicals include pesticides and organic solvents. Absorbing
workplace chemicals through the skin can cause diseases and disorders that include occupational
skin diseases.

Common outcomes of the dermal adsorption are –

i) Rash (contact dermatitis) caused by skin irritation
ii) Rash caused by skin allergies
iii) Skin cancer
iv) Skin infections
v) Skin injuries

d) Injection
Chemical exposure via injection can occur when handling chemically contaminated items such as
broken glass, plastic, pipettes, needles, razor blades, or other items capable of causing punctures,
cuts, or abrasions to the skin. When this occurs, chemicals can be injected directly into the
bloodstream and cause damage to tissue and organs. Due to direct injection into the bloodstream,
symptoms from chemical exposure may occur immediately.

Toxic Effects
There are a number of factors that influence the toxic effects of chemicals on the body. These
include, but are not limited to:
• The quantity and concentration of the chemical.
• The length of time and the frequency of the exposure.
• The route of the exposure.
• If mixtures of chemicals are involved.

Toxic effects are generally classified as acute toxicity or chronic toxicity.

• Acute toxicity is generally thought of as a single, short-term exposure where effects appear
immediately and are often reversible.
• Chronic toxicity is generally thought of as frequent exposures where effects may be
delayed (even for years) and are generally irreversible. Chronic toxicity can also result in
acute exposures, with long term chronic effects.

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Related terms with industrial hazards

Carcinogens:

The term carcinogen means a group of chemicals which cause cancer in animals and humans. The
carcinogens affect DNA, preventing it from giving the necessary directions for the synthesis of
substances which control the cell growth.

List of some carcinogens to which workers should not be exposed

Compounds Uses Hazards

4-nitrophenlyl Chemical analysis, anti- oxidant, May cause bladder cancer,

dye manufacturing, Color film
Alpha-naphthylamine manufacturing

4,4-methylenebis Plastic Curing agent May cause bladder cancer

(2- chloroaniline)
Methyl -chloromethylether
Beta-napthylamine
Ion-exchange resin manufacture Usually contaminated
with carcinogenic
bis ( chloromthyl
) ether
Dye manufacture, Reagent Cause bladder cancer

Benzidine Manufacture of dyes, rubber,

plastics, printing ink

Ethylene dichloride Industrial solvent Causes stomach, spleen,

lung cancer

[ref: Environmental Chemistry by A.K. DE]

Mutagenicity refers to the induction of permanent transmissible changes in the amount or

structure of the genetic material of cells or organisms. These changes may involve a single gene or
gene segment, a block of genes or chromosomes. The genetic change is referred to as a mutation and
the agent causing the change as a mutagen.

Mutations can either occur in germ cells or somatic cells. If the mutation occurs in a germ cell the
effect is heritable. There is no effect on the exposed person; rather the effect is passed on to future
generations. If the mutation occurs in a somatic cell, it can cause altered cell growth (e.g. cancer)
or cell death (e.g. teratogenesis) in the exposed person.

• Germ cells are those cells that are involved in the reproductive process and can give rise to
a new organism. Male germ cells give rise to sperm and female germ cells develop into
ova. Toxicity to germ cells can cause effects on the developing fetus (such as birth
defects, abortions).
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 • Somatic cells are all body cells except the reproductive germ cells. They have two sets (or
pairs) of chromosomes. Toxicity to somatic cells causes a variety of toxic effects to the
exposed individual (such as dermatitis, death, and cancer).

Industrial hazards through food chain:

Bioaccumulation and biomagnification

• Bioaccumulation takes place in a single organism over the span of its life, resulting in a
higher concentration in older individuals.
• Biomagnification takes place as chemicals transfer from lower trophic levels to higher
trophic levels within a food web, resulting in a higher concentration in apex predators.
For example, we can consider the existence of DDT in the food chain. DDT is a persistent
chemical. Once introduced into the environment, it keeps circulating for many years.

It is interesting to note the manner in which DDT accumulates in the food chain. Plankton in
river/sea water contains about 0.04 ppm DDT. The clams that consume plankton concentrate it ten
times, i.e- they contain about 0.4 ppm DDT. From clams, to fish which feed on the clams, to fish
eating birds, the DDT level builds up from .4 to 2.1 and up to 75.5 ppm.

The behavior of mercury is an excellent example of environmental chemodynamics of a hazardous

waste. Mercury has been released by a wide variety of industrial processes and, despite increasing
numbers of controlled sources, continues to escape into the atmosphere and to surface and
groundwater. Mercury may exist in elemental form, as any of dozens of organic and inorganic
compounds, and as a solid, liquid, or vapor. It is handily biotransformed, taken up by plant life, and
concentrated by food chains. It moves with apparent ease through the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere, and lithosphere. This mobility is illustrated in Figure. Although other hazardous wastes
may be more or less easily transformed, mobile, and/or threatening to the environment and human
health, their mobility and activity are major factors in their management.

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 [ Ref: Basic Hazardous Waste Management, Third Edition, William C. Blackman]

Characterization of hazardous waste

Wastes considered hazardous are those which are ignitable, corrosive, reactive, and toxic.
Hazardous waste can be categorized into waste from non-specific sources and waste from specific
sources.
USEPA has established four characteristic tests to determine whether a waste is hazardous or not:
a) Ignitability
➢ Wastes that pose a fire hazard during routine handling, storage, processing, transport, or
disposal
➢ If a solid waste possesses any of the following properties:
o Liquid containing less than 24% alcohol by volume and has flash point less than 60oC
o Liquid capable of causing fire through friction under standard temperature and pressure
o Is an ignitable compressed gas
o Is an oxidant
Examples – paint thinners and paint removing compounds, solvents used for cleaning parts and
degreasing

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Flammability
➢ Vapours of volatile organic compounds can ignite in the presence of a spark.
➢ Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) and Upper Flammability Limit (UFL) of mixture:

*** Correction : UFL mixture = 1/ (y1/UF1) in the last equation.

Example 1: Determine LFL and UFL of a gaseous mixture (v/v) of 0.65% acetone, 0.2% decane and
0.3% hexane.
Compound LFL (%) UFL (%)
Acetone 2.6 12.8
Decane 0.8 9.2
Hexane 1.1 7.5

b) Corrosivity
➢ Corrosive wastes occur at extreme pH o 𝑝𝐻 ≤ 2.5, 𝑝𝐻 ≥ 12.5
➢ Liquid corrodes steel at a rate greater than 6.35 mm per year and at a temperature of 55oC
o Examples – battery acid, phenol wastes, acidic wastes from metal plating industries.
c) Reactivity
➢ Unstable waste
➢ Reacts violently with water
➢ When mixed with water, generates toxic gases/ vapours/ fumes
➢ Can pose sufficient danger to human health or environment, i.e- Cyanide or sulphide bearing
wastes
d) Toxicity
➢ Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) to simulate environmental conditions in
landfill
- Intent of test is to determine whether toxic components of waste could leach to groundwater
and soil if exposed to acidic precipitation
 Examples – paint waste containing metals (Pb, Ag, Cd, Cr), mercury waste, oily wastes and sludge
from petroleum industry, waste containing tetrachloroethylene.

i)The Mixture Rule

A mixture of any amount of hazardous waste and a solid nonhazardous waste is considered
hazardous waste (Pichtel, 2005). There is also an exception to this rule: If the mixture is hazardous
owing a particular property, and a resultant mixture does not exhibit this property, then it cannot be
categorized as hazardous waste. For example, if paint waste is characterized as hazardous (due to its
ignitability), a mixture of paint waste and sand (which is nonignitable) would result in a nonignitable
mixture, which means that the waste mixture can no longer be categorized as hazardous – it becomes
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nonhazardous waste as long as it does not exhibit the ignitability property.

ii)The Contained-In Rule

If a contaminant such as a phenolic compound leaks from a storage container into the groundwater
in the area, the contaminated groundwater is also considered to be a hazardous waste. This applies to
any natural material (soil/ groundwater/ surface water) incorporated into hazardous waste.

iii)The Derived-From Rule

Any solid waste generated from the treatment/ storage/ disposal of hazardous waste (such as sludge,
ash, particulate matter, leachate) is also considered to be a hazardous waste.

❖ Properties of hazardous wastes

1. Water solubility
2. Partition co-efficient
3. Henry’s constant
4. Persistence

Solubility
It is the extent of concentration (mg/L) to which a hazardous compound dissolves in a solvent. It
determines whether the chemical can be found as a separate phase or dissolved, thus controlling fate
and transport. Hydrophobic compounds tend to partition onto solids form emulsions and float at air-
water interface, or sink to the bottom of aquifer. In general, solubility is inversely proportional to
sorption, bioaccumulation and volatilization. Partitioning decreases effect of treatability. It is
affected by temperature (usually expressed at 25oC). Solubility depends on molecular structure, size
and forces of attraction. We can generalize by saying that size is inversely proportional to molar
volume.
E.g. – solubility of naphthalene is 32 mg/L, while solubility of benzopyrene is 0.00038 mg/L.
Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by the liquid at equilibrium. When a liquid is in
contact with air, molecules of the liquid leave as vapour and reach an equilibrium (rate of
volatilization is equal to the rate of molecules dissolving).

Raoult’s Law
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑣𝑋𝑎 (for pure phase)

Where 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎 (𝑎𝑡𝑚)

𝑝𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑡𝑚)
𝑋𝑎 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 a= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 /𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑚𝑜𝑙es

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Partitioning
Partitioning is the distribution of chemicals between two different media/ phases. There are various
partitioning coefficients which empirically describe these phenomena.

Fig: Figure showing partitioning of hazardous waste to various media

Octanol-water partitioning coefficient

It is a measure of how an organic compound partitions between octanol and water.
Octanol-water partitioning coefficient 𝐾𝑜𝑤= C octanol/ C water

Soil-water partitioning coefficient

Water is the preferred medium for contaminants. If the contaminant is in aqueous phase, it gets
adsorbed by soil easily.
Soil-water partitioning coefficient 𝐾𝑑= C soil/ C water

Contaminants in Biota
The partitioning coefficient between biota and water is also known as Bioconcentration Factor
(BCF).
BCF (kg/L)= C biota (g/kg)/ C water (g/L)
It is an estimate of the amount of chemical that is likely to accumulate in aquatic organisms. The
higher the lipid content in an organism, the more the accumulation.

Example 2: An insecticide chlordane is found in lake water at a concentration of 560 μg/L. Find the
concentration of the insecticide in fish. Given BCF for chlordane is 14000 kg/L.

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Biomagnification is the incremental increase in a contaminant’s concentration at each level of the
food chain. This can be explained with the help of the following graphic:

Fig. : Biomagnification of DDT

Henry’s constant:
This constant determine will gases dissolve in water or stay in the air.

Henry’s law constant, H = C air/ C water

C air= Molar concentration of chemical in air (gas from)
C water= Molar concentration of chemical in water

Persistence:
Propensity of a substance to resist chemical to resist chemical and biological breakdown.
Chemical: Hydrolysis, Oxidation, photodegradation
Biological: Metabolized by organisms (decomposition)
Persistence can be characterized by –
i) Residence time
ii) Half-life
iii) Bioaccumulation

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