Handbook On Networking and Data Networks of Indian Railways

केवल कार्ाालर्ीन उपर्ोग हे तु
For Official Use Only
भारत सरकार - रेल मंत्रालय

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA - MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
नेटवर्किं ग एवं भारतीय रेल्वे के डेटा नेटवकक

Networking & Data Networks of Indian Railways
Maharajpur, Gwalior - 474005

CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 i
नेटवर्किंग एवं भारतीय रे ल्वे के डेटा नेटवकक

पर हस्तपुस्स्तका
Handbook on
Networking & Data Networks of Indian
Railways
Prepared by: Ashish Telang, SSE (Telecom)/ CAMTECH

Under the guidance of: Sh. Avadhesh Kumar Yadav, Director (S&T) In-charge/ CAMTECH
End User – For S&T officials and maintenance staff of Indian Railways
फरवरी 2023/ February 2023
केमटे क/एस&टी/2022-23/डेटा-नेटवकक/1.0
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0
Handbook on Networking & Data Networks of Indian Railways Table of contents February 2023
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 ii
Foreword
Communication is the bond that holds us all together and keeps our day-to-day
operations running smoothly. The foundation of good communication is information. In
today’s age, computer networking has become a critical means of information
interchange between people. A computer network is a group of computers connected in
such a way that one computer can interact with another computer.
In Indian Railways, there is rapid modernization in computerization of various railway

systems to meet the increasing requirements of passenger and freight traffic. The data of
passenger traffic and availability of rakes and wagons for freight movement is very
essential for planning, augmenting and optimizing the capacity utilization of both
passenger and freight traffic.
Hence, reliable and efficient maintenance of various networking systems and data
networks like Railnet, FOIS, UTM, PRS and COIS etc. by S&T department have
become very important and essential for railway operations.
CAMTECH is continuously making efforts in documentation and upgradation of

information on advanced maintenance practices. CAMTECH has prepared this
handbook, which covers Introduction of Computer Networking, Network devices &
components and various data networks of IR such as Railnet, FOIS and UTN.
It gives me great pleasure in presenting this handbook to the telecom maintenance

officials and I hope that it will prove useful to them in understanding and maintaining
the above systems.
CAMTECH Gwalior Jitendra Singh

Date: February 2023 Principal Executive Director
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 iii
Preface
Computer Network is an interconnection between computers, which enables one computer

to communicate with another computer along with sharing of information and resources
between them. The devices in network are connected by communication links
(wired/wireless) and share data by Data Communication System.
The interconnection of a large number of data processing devices through suitable

communication links enabling data transfer between the data processing devices constitutes
a Data Network. Indian Railways has three major data networks viz. Railnet, Unified
Ticketing network (UTN) and FOIS network. Special purpose data networks are also being
established by the Railways like the network for monitoring the CCTV network, VoIP
control communication network, etc. Several applications are already operating over the
networks and many new applications are contemplated.
Further, Railway board has decided to switch from the existing Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) network to IP-MPLS technology for telecommunication backbone for
Indian Railways. Since it is also an IP based technology involving computer networking,
CAMTECH has prepared this handbook with an objective to disseminate the information
on computer networking based installations and data networks of Indian Railways among
S&T officials concerned with maintenance of these systems.
This handbook describes Networks Protocols & Standards, Network Media, Network
Devices & Components, Network Addressing and data networks of Indian Railways like
Railnet, FOIS, UTN. Apart from this, Network Maintenance & Troubleshooting is also
covered in the handbook.
We are sincerely thankful to S&T department of Ratlam Div./ Western Railway and
Bhusawal Div./ Central Railway who have provided valuable technical inputs for preparing
this handbook. Since technological upgradation and learning is a continuous process, please
feel free to write to us for any addition/ modification in this handbook. We shall highly
appreciate your contribution in this direction.
CAMTECH Gwalior Avadhesh Kumar Yadav

Date: February 2023 Director (S&T)
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 iv
Table of Contents
Foreword .................................................................................................................................... ii
Preface ...................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iv

List of Figures......................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. x
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ xi
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... xiii
1 Chapter ............................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to Computer Networking & Data Networks of Indian Railways ....................... 1
1.1 Definition of a Computer Network ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Networking Configuration ................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Client - Server Networking ..............................................................................................................1
1.2.2 Peer-to-peer Networking ..................................................................................................................1
1.3 Network Topology ................................................................................................................ 1

1.3.1 Bus Topology ...................................................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Star Topology ...................................................................................................................................2
1.3.3 Ring Topology..................................................................................................................................3
1.4 Types of Networks ................................................................................................................ 3

1.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN) .............................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) .................................................................................................3
1.4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN) ............................................................................................................4
1.5 Data Networks of IR ............................................................................................................. 4
2 Chapter ............................................................................................................................... 6
Network Protocols and Standards............................................................................................. 6
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 TCP/IP Standard .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2.1 Physical and Data Link Layers .........................................................................................................8
2.2.2 Network Layer ..................................................................................................................................8
2.2.3 Transport Layer .............................................................................................................................. 10
2.2.4 3.2.4 Application Layer .................................................................................................................. 10
3 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 11
Network Media......................................................................................................................... 11
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 11
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 v
3.2 Types of Network Media .................................................................................................... 11

3.2.1 Electrical Over Copper Cables ....................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Fiber-Optic Cables ......................................................................................................................... 14
3.2.3 Radio Signals (Wireless) ................................................................................................................ 15
3.3 Ethernet ............................................................................................................................... 15

3.3.1 How does Ethernet work? .............................................................................................................. 15
3.3.2 Key components of an Ethernet connection ................................................................................... 16
3.3.3 Types of Ethernet Connections....................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Ethernet Twisted Pair Cable ............................................................................................. 19

3.4.1 Categories of Twisted Pair Cable ................................................................................................... 19
3.4.2 CAT 6 Cable................................................................................................................................... 20
3.4.3 Ethernet Cable Connector............................................................................................................... 21
3.5 PoE (Power over Ethernet) ................................................................................................ 21

3.6 Networking Tools ................................................................................................................ 22
3.6.1 Crimping tool ................................................................................................................................. 22
3.6.2 LAN Cable Tester .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.6.3 Punch Down Tool ........................................................................................................................... 25
3.7 How to Crimp Cat6 Cables (RJ45 plugs) ......................................................................... 25
4 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 31
Network Devices & Components............................................................................................. 31
4.1 Network Interface Card (NIC) .......................................................................................... 31
4.2 Network Hub ....................................................................................................................... 31
4.3 Network Switch ................................................................................................................... 32
4.3.1 How does a network switch work? ................................................................................................. 33
4.3.2 Difference between a switch and a hub .......................................................................................... 33
4.3.3 Types of Network Switch: .............................................................................................................. 34
4.4 Network Router .................................................................................................................. 35

4.4.1 How does a Router work? .............................................................................................................. 36
4.4.2 Different types of Routers .............................................................................................................. 36
4.4.3 Difference between a Switch and a Router..................................................................................... 37
4.4.4 Difference between a MAC address and an IP address .................................................................. 37
4.5 LAN Extender ..................................................................................................................... 38

4.5.1 General Features ............................................................................................................................. 39
4.6 ADSL Modem and DSLAM............................................................................................... 39

4.6.1 ADSL Modem connection at customer side ................................................................................... 40
4.6.2 ADSL Modem connection at exchange side .................................................................................. 40
5 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 41
Network Addressing................................................................................................................. 41
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 41
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 vi
5.2 Different levels of Network Addresses .............................................................................. 41

5.2.1 Physical Addresses ......................................................................................................................... 41
5.2.2 Logical Addresses .......................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.3 Port Addresses ................................................................................................................................ 42
5.2.4 Specific Addresses ......................................................................................................................... 42
5.3 IP Addressing ...................................................................................................................... 42

5.3.1 Classes of IP Address ..................................................................................................................... 44
5.3.2 Subnetting....................................................................................................................................... 45
5.3.3 Private and public addresses ........................................................................................................... 47
5.3.4 Special purpose network addresses ................................................................................................ 47
6 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 49
Railnet ...................................................................................................................................... 49
6.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 49
6.2 Railnet Architecture ........................................................................................................... 49
6.2.1 Implementation ............................................................................................................................. 49
6.2.2 Features of Railnet LAN Architecture ......................................................................................... 52
6.3 Railnet IP Scheme ............................................................................................................... 53

6.4 Email Addressing ................................................................................................................ 54
6.5 LAN INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................................................ 54
7 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 55
Freight Operation Information System (FOIS) ..................................................................... 55
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 55
7.2 Features ............................................................................................................................... 55
7.3 FOIS Network ..................................................................................................................... 55
7.3.1 Key components of the FOIS system architecture ......................................................................... 56
7.3.2 Network Topology ......................................................................................................................... 57
7.3.3 Network Topology at Divisional level ........................................................................................... 57
8 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 59
Unified Ticketing Network (UTN) .......................................................................................... 59
8.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................. 59
8.2 Network Architecture......................................................................................................... 59
8.2.1 Dumb Terminal ............................................................................................................................. 62
8.2.2 Thin Client ..................................................................................................................................... 62
8.2.3 Terminal Server ............................................................................................................................. 62
9 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 64
Network Maintenance & Troubleshooting ............................................................................. 64
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 64
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 vii
9.2 Network troubleshooting tools........................................................................................... 64

9.2.1 Windows Command-Line Tools .................................................................................................... 64
9.2.2 Network Troubleshooting Applications ......................................................................................... 69
9.3 Network Management system and Traffic Monitoring (Ref. IR Telecom Manual): .... 70
9.4 List of the Test and Measuring Equipment ...................................................................... 70
9.5 Measurements ..................................................................................................................... 71
9.6 Fault Diagnosis.................................................................................................................... 71
9.6.1 Hardware ........................................................................................................................................ 71
9.6.2 Software ......................................................................................................................................... 71
9.6.3 Media/Channel ............................................................................................................................... 71
9.7 Maintenance Schedule ........................................................................................................ 72
Appendix A: Railnet at BSL Division ..................................................................................... 73

Appendix B: Railnet at RTM Division .................................................................................... 74
Appendix C: FOIS at BSL Division ........................................................................................ 75
Appendix D: FOIS at RTM Division ...................................................................................... 76
References ................................................................................................................................ 77
Issue of correction slips ........................................................................................................... 78
CAMTECH Publications......................................................................................................... 79
Our Objective ........................................................................................................................... 80
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 viii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Networking Topologies ........................................................................................... 2
Figure 2.1: OSI vs TCP/IP Model .............................................................................................. 7
Figure 2.2: TCP/IP Model .......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3.1: Coaxial cable.......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3.2: Twisted Pair Cable ................................................................................................. 12
Figure 3.3: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable .................................................................. 13
Figure 3.4: STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Cable ....................................................................... 14
Figure 3.5: Ethernet cable connector ........................................................................................ 21
Figure 3.6: PoE (Power over Ethernet) .................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.7: Crimping tool ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.8: LAN Cable tester (Master & Remote unit) ............................................................ 23
Figure 3.9: Punch down tool .................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.1: Network Interface Card ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 4.2: Network Hub.......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 4.3: Network Switch ..................................................................................................... 33
Figure 4.4: Unmanaged Switch ................................................................................................ 34
Figure 4.5: Managed Switch .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.6: Layer 3 Switch ....................................................................................................... 35
Figure 4.7: Network Router Cisco 1900 Series ........................................................................ 35
Figure 4.8: Back panel of Cisco 1921 Router .......................................................................... 35
Figure 4.9: LAN Extender ........................................................................................................ 38
Figure 4.10: LAN Extender connectivity ................................................................................. 38
Figure 4.11: ADSL Modem...................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4.12: ADSL Modem at Customer side .......................................................................... 40
Figure 4.13: ADSL Modem at Exchange side ......................................................................... 40
Figure 5.1: TCP/IP Network Addressing ................................................................................. 41
Figure 5.2: Classes of IP Address ............................................................................................ 44
Figure 6.1: Railnet central setup at Railway Board.................................................................. 50
Figure 7.1: FOIS System Architecture ..................................................................................... 56
Figure 7.2: FOIS Network Topology ....................................................................................... 57
Figure 8.1: UTN Network Architecture ................................................................................... 59
Figure 8.2: Network Topology ................................................................................................. 61
Figure 8.3: UTN Connectivity at Station ................................................................................. 61
Figure 8.4: PRS & UTS unification network (phase IV) at Secunderabad division of S C
Railway .................................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 8.5: Network Topology below Tier 2 level ................................................................... 63
Figure 9.1: Railnet connectivity at BSL Division, Central Railway ........................................ 73
Figure 9.2: Railnet connectivity at RTM Division, Western Railway ..................................... 74
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 ix
Figure 9.3: FOIS Connectivity at BSL Division, Central Railway .......................................... 75

Figure 9.4: FOIS Connectivity at RTM Division, Western Railway ....................................... 76
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 x
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Twisted Pair Cable categories ................................................................................. 19
Table 3.2: T568A Wiring ......................................................................................................... 20
Table 3.3: T568B Wiring ......................................................................................................... 21
Table 5.1: Subnet Mask ............................................................................................................ 47
Table 5.2: Private IP Addresses ............................................................................................... 47
Table 5.3: Special purpose Network Addresses ....................................................................... 48
Table 6.1: Important Railnet/ Internet IP Addresses ................................................................ 53
Table 6.2: Railnet Gateways .................................................................................................... 54
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 xi
Abbreviations
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ARCNET Attached Resource Computer NETwork
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
AS Autonomous System
BERT Bit Error Ratio Test
BGP Border Gateway Protocol
CMS Crew Management System
COA Control Office Automation
COIS Coaching operations Information System
CRIS Centre for Railway Information Systems
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DMT Discrete Multi-tone Technique
DNS Domain Name System
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
DSLAM Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
EBGP External Border Gateway Protocol
FOIS Freight Operation Information System
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GBIC Gigabit Interface Converter
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMS Integrated Coaching Management System
IGMP Internet Group Message Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
ISP Internet Service Provider
LAN Local Area Network
LER Label Edge Router
MAC Media Access Control
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MMF Multi-mode fiber
MMIS Material Management Information System
MPLS Multi Protocol Label Switching
MSTP Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol
NIC Network Interface Card
NMS Network Management System
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 xii
NOC Network Operation Center

OSI Open System Interconnectivity
OSPF Open Shortest Path First
PMS Parcel Management System
PoE Power over Ethernet
PRS Passenger Reservation System
QoS Quality of Service
RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
RCIL Railtel Corporation of India Limited
RMS Rake Management System
RSTP Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol
RTT Round Trip Time
SAP System Analysis Program
SCP Session Control Protocol
SCTP Stream Control Transmission Protocol
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol
SMF Single-mode fiber
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SSH Secure Shell
STM Synchronous Transport Module
STP Shielded Twisted Pair
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TC-PAM Trellis-Coded Pulse Amplitude Modulation
TIA Telecommunications Industry Association
TMS Terminal Management System
UDP User Datagram Protocol
UTN Unified Ticketing network
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
UTS Unreserved Ticketing System
VLAN Virtual Local Area Network
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
VPN Virtual Private Network
VRRP Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol
VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal
WAN Wide Area Network
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 xiii
Disclaimer
It is clarified that the information given in this booklet does not
supersede any existing provisions laid down in the IR Telecom
Engineering Manual, Railway Board and RDSO publications. This
document is not statuary and instructions given are for the purpose
of learning only. The diagrams and figures given in the booklet are
indicative only. If at any point contradiction is observed, then Signal
Engineering Manual, Telecom Engineering Manual, Railway
Board/RDSO guidelines may be referred or prevalent Zonal Railways
instructions may be followed.
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0 1
1 Chapter
Introduction to Computer Networking & Data Networks
of Indian Railways
1.1 Definition of a Computer Network

A Network is a set of devices (generally referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
In simper term, A Network can be defined as a “group of computers connected together to share
the resources which can be hardware as well as software”.
Network provides two principle benefits: the ability to communicate and the ability to share.
Sharing involves information like database records, e-mail, graphics etc. and resources like
applications, printers, modems, hard disk, scanners etc.
1.2 Networking Configuration

There are two basic Network designs: Client - Server and Peer-to-peer.
1.2.1 Client - Server Networking

In a Client – Server network, at least one computer is designated as a server from the other
computers (clients). This server can acts as file server, print server as well as application server.
The Client-Server or Server based network provides central control of resources, enhanced
security and simplifies administration. However, it generally costs more and requires efficient
administration.
1.2.2 Peer-to-peer Networking

In this, there is no dedicated server. Instead, each computer acts as both a client and a server,
based on the role assigned to that particular machine. In other words, each computer can share
its resources with other computers as well as use the resources of other computers.
For successful working of this arrangement, each of the computers on a peer-to-peer network
must have enough processing power to support both the client and server functions.
1.3 Network Topology

A Network topology refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are
connected to each other. The topology is only concerned with the physical arrangements of the
computers on a network and has nothing to do with the architecture (access methods, protocols
etc.). The computers which are connected in a network layout are sometimes referred to as a
node or a workstation or a client.
While designing a network topology, it is very important to prepare a plan which fits in the
complete requirements of the organization. Further it should also have the provision to expand
the network as per the future requirements of the organization.
There are three basic types of Networking Topologies: Bus, Star and Ring.
Figure 1.1: Networking Topologies
1.3.1 Bus Topology

A bus topology connects each node to a single backbone. It is normally implemented using a
coaxial cable. The signal travels from one end of the bus to the other. A terminator is required
at each end to absorb the signal so it does not reflect back across the bus.
In a bus topology, signals are broadcasted to all stations. Each computer checks the address on
the signal (data frame) as it passes along the bus. If the signal’s address matches that of the
computer, the computer processes the signal. If the address doesn’t match, the computer takes
no action and the signal travels on down the bus.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to implement and extend.  Difficult to administer and
 Well suited for temporary networks. troubleshoot.
 Failure of a node does not affect other  Best suited for small network.
nodes of the network.  A cable break can disable the entire
 Involves low cost of implementation. network.
 Performance degrades as additional
computers are added on to the network.
1.3.2 Star Topology

It is normally implemented using UTP cable and is the most common and dominating of all the
topologies in use (Data networks of Indian Railways are also structured mostly around star
topology). In this all the nodes are connected to a central unit which can be a hub or a switch
via its own cable.
High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central switch.
 Easy to add new nodes on a network.  If the hub or switch fails, the complete
 Easy to monitor and troubleshoot. network collapses.
 Can accommodate different wiring.  More cable is required.
 Easy to implement.
1.3.3 Ring Topology

It consists of a set of nodes connected serially by cable. It is a ring of computers connected to
each other by means of a communication medium.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from node to node, until it reaches its
destination.
Each node in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended for
another node, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 Very stable and can be expanded  Involves high cost of implementation.
without a significant degradation in  If one node fails the entire network
network performance. collapses.
 All nodes on a network have equal  Complex and thus difficult to
access. troubleshoot.
1.4 Types of Networks

The network can be categorized by geographical area into three types: LAN (Local Area
Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area Network).
1.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies in use for local area networks.
Historical network technologies include ARCNET, Token Ring and AppleTalk.
The LAN at most railway locations is based on Ethernet.
1.4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area. The term MAN is
applied to the interconnection of local area networks (LANs) in a city into a single larger
network which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network. The term is also
used to describe the interconnection of several LANs in a metropolitan area with point-to-point
connections between them.
1.4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large
geographic area. Wide area networks are often established with leased telecommunication
circuits. A WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LAN. In WAN mostly the LANs
are connected with each other through a network device called as router.
A very common example of WAN is Internet which is a collection of different LANs and
Servers.
To make it easier, the network at local offices like divisions, workshops or zonal railway HQs
is LAN and their interconnecting network with the RailTel’s MPLS VPN network is WAN
which we call RAILNET, an intranet of Indian Railways.
1.5 Data Networks of IR

The interconnection of a large number of data processing devices through suitable
communication links enabling data transfer between the data processing devices constitutes a
DATA NETWORK. Indian Railways has three major data networks viz. Railnet, Unified
Ticketing network (UTN) and FOIS network. Special purpose data networks are also being
established by the Railways like the network for monitoring the CCTV network, VoIP control
communication network, etc. Several applications are already operating over the networks and
many new applications are contemplated. The various applications are as under:
 Passenger Reservation System (PRS) & Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS)

 Freight Operations Information System ( FOIS), Coaching operations Information
System (COIS), Control Office Automation (COA) & Crew Management System
(CMS)
 Material Management Information System (MMIS)
 Integrated Coaching Management System (ICMS)
 Parcel management system (PMS)
 Software for Electric Locomotive Asset Management (SLAM)
 Time Table Management System (Satsang)
 E-procurement System
 Integrated Material Management System (iMMS)
 Locomotive Management System (LMS)
 Health Management Information System (HMIS)
 e-Office
 Track Management System (TMS)
 Works Program Management System
 Railway Land Management System
 RPF Security Management System (RSMS)
 e-Drishti – A Dashboard for Indian Railways

 TDMS – Traction Distribution Management System (Pilot project)
 EEMS – Electrical Energy Management System
 Signaling Maintenance Management System (SMMS)
 Real-time Train Information System (RTIS)
 Integrated Payroll and Accounting System (IPAS) and Web enabled Railway Budget
System
 Computerization of Train Signal Registers (TSR)
 Human Resource Management System (HRMS)
The data networks can also be used for other applications like Video Conferencing, Data
Conferencing, VOIP, IVRS, Disaster Management, Office Automation etc.
2 Chapter
Network Protocols and Standards
2.1 Introduction
Everywhere there are some rules to communicate. Computers also use network protocols to
communicate in computer networks. There are many network protocols in existence; TCP/IP is
a family of network protocols that are used for the Internet and also for IR data networks.
A network protocol is a standard or rules set to communicate.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has standardized a system of network
protocols called as OSI (Open System Interconnectivity). Another organization that issues
communication standards is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), formerly
known as the CCITT, located in Geneva.
First of all, let's have a look at why network communication is divided into several protocols.
Let us take an example of two foreigners trying to communicate with each other. Each of the
two can only communicate in his or her respective language. In order for them to be able to
communicate with each other, they need a translator (figure below):
The two foreigners exchange ideas, i.e., they communicate. But they only do so virtually. In
reality, they are both handing over information to their interpreters, who then transmit this
information by sending vibrations through the surrounding air with their vocal cords.
Alternatively, if the parties are far away from each other, the interpreters communicate over the
phone; thus the information is physically transmitted over phone lines.
We can therefore talk about virtual communication in the horizontal direction (philosophical
communication, the shared language between interpreters, and electronic signals transmitted
via phone lines) and real communication in the vertical direction (foreigner-to-interpreter and
interpreter-to-phone). We can thus distinguish three levels of communication:
1. Between two foreigners
2. Between interpreters
3. Physical transmission of information using media (phone lines, sound waves, etc.)
Communication between the two foreigners and between the two interpreters is only virtual. In
fact, the only real communication happens between the foreigner and his or her interpreter.
Even more layers are used in computer networks. The number of layers depends on which
system of network protocols you choose to use. The system of network protocols is sometimes
referred to as the network model. You most commonly work with a system that uses the Internet,
which is also referred to as the TCP/IP family.
Figure 2.1: OSI vs TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP family uses four layers while ISO OSI uses seven layers. The TCP/IP and ISO OSI
systems differ from each other significantly, although they are very similar on the network and
transport layers. Except for some exceptions like SLIP or PPP, the TCP/IP family does not deal
with the data link and physical layers. Therefore, even on the Internet, we use the link and
physical protocols of the ISO OSI model.
2.2 TCP/IP Standard

When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to
the combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is equivalent to the
network layer, and the application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation,
and application layers with the transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the
session layer.
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI
model. The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a
single layer called the application layer (Figure below).
Figure 2.2: TCP/IP Model
At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). At the
network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the Internetworking Protocol (IP); there
are also some other protocols that support data movement in this layer.
2.2.1 Physical and Data Link Layers

At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports
all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-
area network or a wide-area network.
2.2.2 Network Layer

At the network layer, TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
2.2.2.1 Internetworking Protocol (IP)

The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol--a best-effort delivery service. The term best
effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assumes the unreliability of the
underlying layers and does its best to get a transmission through to its destination, but with no
guarantees.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.

Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated. IP
does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive
at their destination.
The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however. IP provides bare-
bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilities necessary for a given
application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
2.2.2.2 Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical
address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a
physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used
to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.
2.2.2.3 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address
when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a network
for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.
2.2.2.4 Internet Control Message Protocol

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error
reporting messages.
2.2.2.5 Internet Group Message Protocol

The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission
of a message to a group of recipients.
2.2.3 Transport Layer

Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP.
IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to
another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from
a process (running program) to another process. A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been
devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
2.2.3.1 User Datagram Protocol

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport
protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
2.2.3.2 Transmission Control Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications.
TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-
oriented: A connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either
can transmit data.
At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called
segments. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with
an acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are carried across the internet
inside of IP datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and
reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
2.2.4 3.2.4 Application Layer

The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.
3 Chapter
Network Media
3.1 Introduction
Network media refers to the communication channels used to interconnect nodes on a computer
network. Typical examples of network media include copper coaxial cable, copper twisted pair
cables and optical fiber cables used in wired networks, and radio waves used in wireless data
communications networks.
3.2 Types of Network Media

There are basically three types of Network media.
1. Electrical Over Copper Cables
2. Fiber-Optic Cables
3. Radio Signals (Wireless)
3.2.1 Electrical Over Copper Cables

First and the earliest type of network media or medium used was electrical signal sent over
copper cables.
Copper Cabling can be found in coaxial cabling (which was by the way the first and used to be
the ONLY type of network media used in early networks) and you can find it in twisted pair
cabling which you find on a majority of physically wired networks in the present day.
3.2.1.1 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables form a transmission line and confine the electromagnetic wave to an area inside
the cable between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line
occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can
therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be
strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.
The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of
multiple megahertz. Although in most homes coaxial cables have been installed for
transmission of TV signals, new technologies (such as the ITU-T G.hn standard) open the
possibility of using home coaxial cable for high-speed home networking applications (Ethernet
over coax).
Figure 3.1: Coaxial cable
3.2.1.2 Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which pairs of wires (the forward and return
conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from other wire pairs and from external sources. This type
of cable is used for Ethernet networks.
Figure 3.2: Twisted Pair Cable
One of the conductors is used to carry the signal and the other is used as a ground reference
only. The receiver uses the difference of signals between these two conductors. The noise or
crosstalk in the two parallel conductors is high but this is greatly reduced in twisted pair cables
due to the twisting characteristic. In the first twist, one conductor is near to noise source and the
other is far from the source but in the next twist the reverse happens and the resultant noise is
very less and hence the balance in signal quality is maintained and the receiver receives very
less or no noise. The quality of signal in twisted pair cables greatly depends upon the number
of twists per unit length of the cable.
Twisted Pair Cables are further of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)
3.2.1.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)

These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation or
shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables. They reduce the external
interference due to the presence of insulation. Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged in
pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever required. The DSL or telephone lines in
our houses have one extra pair in them. When UTP are arranged in pairs, each pair is coded
with a different color as defined by the 25-pair color code developed by AT&T Corporation.
The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into 7 categories based on some standards.
Categories are based upon cable quality where 1 is the highest quality and 7 is the lowest quality.
Each cable in a category is put to a different use as needed.
Figure 3.3: UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable
Advantages:
 These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.
 They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.
 It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.
Disadvantages:
 The connection established using UTP is not secure.
 They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in pieces
of up to 100 meters.
 These cables have limited bandwidth.
3.2.1.2.2 Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in the
form of a copper braid covering. This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the
cable. It also reduces noise and signal interference in the cable. The shielding ensures that the
induced signal can be returned to the source via ground and only circulate around the shield
without affecting the main propagating signal. The STP cables are also color-coded like the
UTP cables as different color pairs are required for analog and digital transmission. These cables
are costly and difficult to install.
Figure 3.4: STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Cable
Advantages:
 They are generally used for long-distance communication and transmission and are
installed underground.
 The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise penetration into the cable.
 They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.
Disadvantages:
 These cables are very expensive.
 They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
 These can be installed underground only.
 The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.
3.2.1.2.3 Applications of Twisted pair cables:

 Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
 The DSL lines make use of these cables.
 Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
 They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair cables.
3.2.2 Fiber-Optic Cables

Fiber-Optic cable is where electrical signals or data are
translated into light pulses and they are sent down a reflective
glass cable or a glass medium type of cable. Fiber-optic cable is
a high-speed alternative to copper wire and is often employed
as the backbone of larger corporate networks.
3.2.3 Radio Signals (Wireless)

Wireless communication is the base of unguided media. It transports electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor. The wireless media available for transmitting network
packets are of three types:
i) Radio waves – used for Wireless LANs
ii) Microwaves – used for terrestrial and satellite communication.
iii) Infrared waves – used for controlling devices like remote controls.
3.3 Ethernet
Ethernet is a communication technology developed in the 1970s by Xerox that links computers
in a network via a wired connection. It connects local area network (LAN) and wide area
network (WAN) systems (WAN). With LAN and WAN, several devices, such as printers and
laptops, may be connected across buildings, residences, and even small communities.
It provides a straightforward user interface that facilitates the connection of several devices,
including switches, routers, and PCs. With a router and just a few Ethernet connections, it is
possible to construct a local area network (LAN) that enables users to communicate between
all connected devices. This is because laptops have Ethernet connectors, into which cables are
inserted, and the other end is linked to routers.
Ethernet describes how network devices format and transmit data so other devices on the same
LAN or campus network can recognize, receive and process the information. An Ethernet cable
is the physical, encased wiring over which the data travels. Connected devices that use cables
to access a geographically localized network -- instead of a wireless connection -- likely use
Ethernet.
Compared to wireless technology, Ethernet is typically less vulnerable to disruptions. It can also
offer a greater degree of network security and control than wireless technology because devices
must connect using physical cabling. This makes it difficult for outsiders to access network data
or hijack bandwidth for unsanctioned devices. Wired networks are more reliable and this is the
primary reason why so many businesses and organizations continue to adopt Ethernet.
3.3.1 How does Ethernet work?

The Ethernet protocol employs a star topology or linear bus, which is the basis for the IEEE
802.3 standard. In the OSI network structure, this protocol works both at the physical layer and
data link layer. Ethernet divides the data connection layer into two distinct layers: the logical
link control tier and the medium access control (MAC) tier.
The data connection layer in a network system is primarily concerned with transmitting data
packets from one node to the other. Ethernet employs an access mechanism known as
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to enable each computer to
listen to the connection before delivering data across the network.
Ethernet also transmits data using two components: packets and frames. The frame contains the
sent data payload as well as the following:
 Both the MAC and physical addresses of the sender and recipient
 Error correction data for identifying transmission faults
 Information on Virtual LAN (VLAN) tagging, as well as the quality of service (QoS)
Each frame is encapsulated in packets that comprise many bytes of data to set up the connection
and identify the frame’s commencement point.
3.3.2 Key components of an Ethernet connection

An Ethernet connection encompasses the following:
The Ethernet protocol: This protocol was developed in the 1970s by Xerox. It is a series of
standards that governs how data is sent between Ethernet components as explained before.
The Ethernet port: Ethernet ports (commonly known as jacks or sockets) are openings on
computer network infrastructure into which one may plug in Ethernet cables. It supports cables
with RJ-45 connectors. The Ethernet connector on the majority of computers serves to connect
the equipment to a wired connection. The Ethernet port of a computer is linked to an Ethernet
network adapter, also known as an Ethernet card, mounted on the motherboard. A router may
contain numerous Ethernet ports to support various wired network devices.
Ethernet network adapter: An Ethernet adapter is a chip or card that fits into a slot on the
motherboard and allows a computer to connect to a local area network (LAN). In the past, these
were always used with desktop computers. Ethernet is now integrated into the chipsets of laptop
and desktop motherboards.
An Ethernet cable: Ethernet cable, often known as a network cable, links your computer to a
modem, router, or network switch. The Ethernet cable consists of the RJ45 connection, the
internal cabling, and a plastic jacket.
3.3.3 Types of Ethernet Connections
3.3.3.1 Ethernet connections that use coaxial cables

A coaxial cable transmits electrical signals at high frequencies with minimal loss. Ethernet types
10Base2 and 10Base5 are now used. A copper conductor is surrounded by a dielectric insulator
often constructed of PVC or Teflon. The dielectric insulator is encircled by a braided conductive
metallic shield that minimizes electromagnetic interference of the metal as well as outside
interference. Lastly, the metallic shield is covered with a PVC, or other fire-resistant plastic
wrapping called a sheath. 10 Mbps is its highest transmission speed.
3.3.3.2 Connections via fiber optic cables

These connections employ optical fibers with glass cores wrapped by several sheets of cladding
material, often PVC or Teflon. Since it sends data as light signals, there are no interference
difficulties with fiber optics.
Fiber optics can transfer signals over far greater distances than twist pairs and coaxial cables. It
employs 10BaseF, 100BaseFX, 100BaseBX, 100BaseSX, 1000BaseFx, 1000BaseSX, and
1000BaseBx variations of Ethernet. Consequently, it can transmit information at a rapid speed.
This Ethernet type may also be subdivided into networks using the following:
Single-mode fiber (SMF): It is utilized for long-distance communication and employs a single
beam of light to deliver data.
Multi-mode fiber (MMF): It utilizes numerous light beams to convey data and is less
expensive than other alternatives.
3.3.3.3 Ethernet connections via twisted pair cables

Twisted pair is a copper wire cable consisting of two insulated copper wires wrapped around to
prevent interference and crosstalk. It employs 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and a few additional
Ethernet variants of more recent origin. It utilizes RJ-45 plugs. This Ethernet type may be
among the following variations:
Ethernets that use shielded twisted pair (STP) cables: This foil shield offers protection
against interference flowing into or out of the cable. Consequently, they are used across more
considerable distances and at higher transmission rates.
Ethernets that use unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables: Unshielded twisted pair cable is
now one of the most frequently deployed cables in computer networks. UTP comprises two
twisted, insulated copper wires; twisting cables help limit interference.
3.3.3.4 Fast Ethernet

It is an Ethernet network capable of 100 Mbit/s data transmission. It may use twisted pairs or
fiber optic cables. (The earlier 10 Mbit/s Ethernet is still deployed and utilized but lacks the
bandwidth required for specific network video scenarios.)
Most network-connected devices, like laptops and network cameras, include a 100BASE-
TX/10BASE-T Ethernet interface, often referred to as a 10/100 interface, that supports both 10
Mbit/s and Fast Ethernet. Cat-5 cable is the type of twisted pair cable which enables Fast
Ethernet.
3.3.3.5 Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet, which might alternatively be based on twisted pair or fiber optic cable,
provides a data transfer rate of one gigabit per second (1 Gbit/s) and is gaining in popularity. It
is anticipated to supersede Fast Ethernet as the de facto norm in the near future.
Cat-5e is the kind of twisted pair cable which enables Gigabit Ethernet, in which all four types
of twisted wires are used to accomplish high data speeds. Cat-5e cables or higher are suggested
for networked video systems. Most interfaces are interoperable with 10 and 100 Mbit/s Ethernet
and therefore are frequently referred to as 10/100/1000 interfaces.
3.3.3.6 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The newest iteration of Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, offers a data throughput of 10 Gbit/s
(10,000 Mbit/s) via an optic fiber or twisted pair connection. 10GBASE-LX4, 10GBASE-ER,
or 10GBASE-SR built on an optical fiber connection could reach up to 10,000 meters in
distance (6.2 miles). The twisted pair option requires a cable of exceptional quality (Cat-6a or
Cat-7). Ethernet 10 Gbit/s is mainly utilized for backbone networks in high-end operations that
demand significant data speeds.
3.3.3.7 Switch-based Ethernet

This network configuration includes a hub or a switch. In addition, a standard network cable is
employed as opposed to a twisted pair cable. A network switch’s primary role is to transfer
information/data from one device to another on the same network. Consequently, a network
switch efficiently completes this operation since data is transported from one machine to another
without harming other networking hardware within the same environment.
This form of Ethernet network has a star topology centered on a switch. A network switch
employs a filtering and switching process comparable to gateways, where these methods have
been around for an extended period.
3.3.3.8 Wired Ethernet, which uses cables

This is the most prevalent type of wired LAN or WAN communication. A modem is directly
attached to an Ethernet cable, and the cable’s opposite end is linked to a machine (laptop or
desktop). This cable needs to be at least Cat5 or above. Due to the direct connection, the speed
is also much higher than wireless networks. In reality, this is an excellent Internet connection
choice for individual users.
This is also feasible for several users, like in a small company network. One to fifteen devices
may be connected to such a network across a range of up to 10 kilometers. While wired Ethernet
is virtually extinct, it is still advantageous for smaller groups since it is considerably faster and
more secure than wireless networks and can load and transmit large amounts of data, such as
films and audio, and live stream them without interruption.
3.3.3.9 Wireless Ethernet – i.e., without cables

A wireless network relies on high-frequency radio signals and does not require cables to connect
a receiving device, such as a laptop, to the network. In this method, often known as Wi-Fi, data
is transferred using wireless signals instead of a cable. Consequently, it is more adaptable than
wired networks, and the device will connect if it is within a certain range or on the router and
modem’s periphery.
If a modem and a router are present, one must connect the modem to the router via a category
5 (Cat5) or category 6 (Cat6) Ethernet connection. The item that is virtually linked receives a
signal from the routers. This network is simple to set up, although there may be Wi-Fi signal
concerns.
3.4 Ethernet Twisted Pair Cable

Cables used for Ethernet for Local Area Network (LAN) are generically twisted pair cables.
There are of two types. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and STP (Shielded Twisted Pair). UTP
is predominantly used for indoor areas and whereas STP for outdoor & in special areas.
3.4.1 Categories of Twisted Pair Cable

Table 3.1: Twisted Pair Cable categories
Category Network Type Maximum Description

Network
Speed
Category Voice Transmission 1 Mbps It’s not suitable for
1(CAT 1) networking.
CAT 2 For digital telephone 4 Mbps It’s commonly not used on
an low-speed networks networks.
CAT 3 Ethernet 10 Mbps This category is currently used

for telephone wiring.
CAT 4 IBM token ring 10 Mbps It may also be used for
10Mbps Ethernet.
CAT 5 Fast Ethernet Connection 100 Mbps
CAT 5e Gigabit Ethernet 350 Mbps
CAT 6 Gigabit Ethernet 1 Gbps It does supports a signaling
rate of 250 MHz.
CAT 6a Gigabit Ethernet 1 Gbps It also supports a signaling
rate of 500 MHz.
CAT 7 Gigabit Ethernet 1+ Gbps It support a signaling rate of 2
GHz.
3.4.2 CAT 6 Cable

Category 6 cable (Cat 6) is a standardized twisted pair cable for Ethernet and other network
physical layers that is backward compatible with the Category 5/5e and Category 3 cable
standards.
Cat 6 cable can be identified by the printing on the side of the cable sheath. Cable types,
connector types and cabling topologies are defined by ANSI/TIA-568.
Cat 6 patch cables are normally terminated in 8P8C modular connectors, using either T568A or
T568B pin assignments; performance is comparable provided both ends of a cable are
terminated identically.
Table 3.2: T568A Wiring

Pin Pair Wire Color
1 3 1 white/green
2 3 2 green
3 2 1 white/orange
4 1 2 blue
5 1 1 white/blue
6 2 2 orange
7 4 1 white/brown
8 4 2 brown
Table 3.3: T568B Wiring

Pin Pair Wire Color
1 2 1 white/orange
2 2 2 orange
3 3 1 white/green
4 1 2 blue
5 1 1 white/blue
6 3 2 green
7 4 1 white/brown
8 4 2 brown
If Cat 6-rated patch cables, jacks and connectors are not used with Cat 6 wiring, overall
performance is degraded and may not meet Cat 6 performance specifications. The Cat 6
specification requires conductors to be pure copper.
3.4.3 Ethernet Cable Connector

The 8P8C modular connector for Ethernet often called RJ45 is an 8-position modular connector
that looks like a large phone plug.
Figure 3.5: Ethernet cable connector
RJ45 Jacks are designed to work only with solid Ethernet cable. Most jacks come labeled with
color coded wiring diagrams for either T568A, T568B or both.
3.5 PoE (Power over Ethernet)

Power over Ethernet is a technology which allows a single cable to provide both data connection
and electrical power to the devices.
It is not necessary to use two individual lines for Data & Power supply. One Ethernet line is
sufficient. This technology is applicable for wide range of network products such as Access
Points, Routers, IP cameras, modems, switches, embedded computers or other network

products.
Power over Ethernet is defined by

standard IEEE 802.3af/ 15.4 W, (at the
same time it is defined by new prepared
standard IEEE 802.3at / 25.5 W). Power
over Ethernet products using these
standards contain of two individual
active pieces injector and splitter. Each
active piece includes an electrical
circuit which ensures the function of
this solution. There is guaranteed
Figure 3.6: PoE (Power over Ethernet)
selected supply to 100 m / 328 ft at these standards.
Power over Ethernet, is a simple way of connecting the cables in order to transfer the data and
power supply along the same Ethernet cable at the same time. Ethernet cable contains 8 wires.
4 wires (1, 2, 3, 6) are used for data transmission and the rest (4, 5, 7, 8) is used for supplying
power.
3.6 Networking Tools

Computer networks are used to connect one computer to another so as to facilitate a transfer of
data. There are many different types of networks. The two basic types are wireless networks
and wired networks. Wired networks are known to be much stronger and faster than wireless
ones and they are also less expensive as compared to wireless networks.
However, for installation, maintenance and troubleshooting of a wired network, some hardware
tools and other accessories are also required.
Some of the must have tools are as under:
3.6.1 Crimping tool

This tool is used to connect RJ-45, RJ-11 and other connectors to the end of a cable. Some
crimping tools have a built-in wire cutter near the handle. This wire cutter can be used to cut a
phone cable or a Cat6 cable.
While using a crimping tool, the wires that need to be crimped are first placed into the connector.
Once this is done, the jack with the wires is placed in the designated slot of the crimping tool
and the handles of the tool are squeezed tight. By doing this, you can ensure that the plastic
connector you are using punctures the wires inside and holds them all in place. This prevents
the wires from loosening and coming out. If the wires are crimped securely in place, data can
be easily transmitted by every wire.
Figure 3.7: Crimping tool
3.6.2 LAN Cable Tester

One of the problems with wired networks is that when they cease to work, troubleshooting may
be a little more difficult as compared to wireless networks. This is where a network cable tester
can help you. A network cable tester is a useful device that allows you to check the continuity
of the cable to figure out if the signal is strong enough to get through to the network. This helps
to eliminate cable connectivity issues while troubleshooting the problems.
Figure 3.8: LAN Cable tester (Master & Remote unit)
It is important to remember that you should never connect a live wire circuit to a network cable
tester. It should be used only after the cable has been disconnected from the router, modem, and
a computer. Generally, a network cable tester has two parts – the tester and remote. Most testers
work with two or three connectors. In general, they will have an Ethernet RJ-45 connector,
telephone cable RJ-11 connectors and one BNC for the coaxial cable.
The remote has connectors for Ethernet and telephone cable. Using a network cable tester is a
simple affair. All you have to do is connect the cable to the right port on the tester and connect
the remote to the other end. Once you run the network cable tester, you will be able to figure
out if the network problem lies in the connectivity. If it doesn’t, you will have ruled it out and
can continue troubleshooting.
The master unit has the batteries for the tester, while the remote uses power passed over the
Ethernet cables.
There are two main uses of this tool:
1. To establish that cabling has been wired into RJ45 connectors correctly.
2. To trace specific cables on a patch panel.
In the second case where there is a patch panel in one location with cables integrated into a
building connecting to individual ports elsewhere around the building, the master unit is
connected to one of the remote ports, and the remote unit is connected in turn to each port on
the patch panel until the corresponding port is located. Not only does this identify the port, but
it also confirmed the cable is correctly connected at both ends.
Procedure to test a CAT6 cable with LAN Cable tester:

1. Plug one end of the cable into the TX plug on the tester and the other end into the RX
receiver jack.
2. Turn the tester on and watch if any lights don’t activate during the cycle. Once the cables
are connected, turn the tester on to begin the test.
3. The tester will cycle through 8 positions and a ground connection, each represented by
a light on the tester. Since the cable isn’t grounded, the ground position won’t light up.
If all the other connections are good, then each position will light up. If any besides the
ground don’t light up, then the cable is bad and replacement is needed.
3.6.3 Punch Down Tool

A punch down tool is used in a wiring closet to connect cable wires directly to a patch panel or
punch-down block. This tool makes it easier to connect wires than it would be to do it by hand.
The punch down tool is also known as the Krone tool.
The impact type of punch down tool is the most popular and commonly used one. The impact
punch down tool consists of a slot for inserting removable blades, an internal spring impact
mechanism and a handle to hold the tool. Other than just inserting the wire, a punch down tool
can also be used to cut off the excess wire. Some punch down tools come with a fixed blade
and may even lack an impact mechanism.
Figure 3.9: Punch down tool
3.7 How to Crimp Cat6 Cables (RJ45 plugs)

To start making your own Ethernet cables you will need:
 A drum of Ethernet Cat6 cable
 RJ45 plugs
 RJ45 crimping tool
 Wire cutter
 Wire stripper
 LAN tester – this is essential to verify the cable and that the all 8 wire connections are
correct and working before you go to use it in your network setup.
Following are the steps to crimp and prepare Ethernet cable:

1. So, take your wire cutters and cut however much cable you need for the cable run you’re
working on – being sure to leave a generous amount of excess, partly because a few
centimetres will get chopped from either end, and because it’s always better to have a
little bit of excess rather than realise the cable’s too short! Some crimping tools also
include a cutter and a stripper, although separate wire cutters and strippers may also be
used.
2. Network cable consists of 4 twisted pairs, so 8 wires in total. Cat6 cable usually also has
a loose plastic core running down the centre, to reduce crosstalk between those 4 twisted
pairs. Each pair is colour-coded, with one of the pair being a solid colour and the other
is a tribute act to an American rock duo from Detroit.
3. Strip off about a 3cm length of the outer jacket, being careful not to damage the
conductors inside. Snip off the plastic crosstalk separator and the ripcord thread that
both run along inside the cable. Then untwist all 4 pairs of wires, and pinch each wire
tightly between your thumb and forefinger and run along like this to straighten them all
out as best you can.
4. You can use the bit of jacket that you’ve just stripped off to help untwist the pairs if you
like, by sliding it down between them like this. Many people prefer doing it this way, as
it’s a bit easier on your fingers.
5. Next, it’s time to arrange the 8 wires in the correct order so that we can feed them into
the plug. There are two main standards, T-568A and T-568B. The only difference is the
greens and the oranges trade places. The key importance is that the wiring is the same
on both ends of the cable, so if you’re just making a length of cable and terminating both
ends with an RJ45 plug then it really doesn’t make any difference – as long as you use
the same both end. However, T-568B is the most widely used.
6. So that’s orange and white, solid orange, green and white, solid blue, blue and white,
solid green, brown and white, solid brown.
If you’re adding cabling to an existing setup, or replacing a faulty end, then make sure
you use whatever standard is already in use at the location, to make things easier for
yourself and any other engineers who might do work there after you.
7. So, arrange them in the right order and again, run your fingers along to help straighten
them out even more so that they sit right and in the correct position. I find it helpful at
this point to take my wire cutters and gently grip the cables – but don’t snip them just
yet – and to bunch the ends right up to each other and double check the colours are still
in the correct order.
8. Then, take an RJ45 plug and hold it up against the end of your cable, and line the end of
the outer jacket up with the point that it’ll end up at inside the plug. The key here is that
we want all 8 wires inside the plug to be long enough to reach right to the very end, but
not so long that the outer jacket isn’t gripped securely when we crimp it in a moment.
9. Then slide your snips down the wires, keeping them bunched together and in the right
order, and come to rest in line with the very tip of the RJ45 plug. Put the plug down for
a moment and hold the wires really tightly between your thumb and forefinger as you
snip the excess off, so they stay bunched together and in the right order.
10. Then, being careful not to let them come loose, slide them up and into the plug with the
clip end facing away from you. Make sure you push it all the way to the pins at the end
and so that the outer jacket is fully inside ready to be gripped when you crimp.
11. Visually inspect the colours to make sure they’re still in the right order, and then use the
crimping tool to finish the job. This does two things: it splices all 8 wires into the copper
pins at the end there and it bends the gripper to hold the entire cable securely inside the
plug.
12. Repeat exactly the same process with the same wiring order for the other end, and then
be sure to test the cable with a LAN cable tester. It will check all the 8 wire connections
at both ends. It does this by sending a pulse down each wire in turn, from the Master to
the Remote. You should see the sequence going from 1 to 8 on both ends, and when it
does you know that the cable is working perfectly.
4 Chapter
Network Devices & Components
4.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)

Every computer on a network requires a network interface card in order to access the network.
Typically the NIC attaches to the motherboard expansion slots. Now a days motherboards have
a built-in network interface, so a separate card is not needed.
The primary function of a NIC is to allow the computer to communicate on the network. It does
this by transmitting/ receiving and controlling traffic with other computers or devices on the
network.
While transmitting, the NIC converts data from parallel to serial, encodes and compress it, and
then places it on the wire in the form of electrical or optical signal. The process is reversed on
the receiving end. The NIC translates the electrical signal it receives off the wire into bits that
can be read by the computer.
Each NIC has an unique identifying MAC address hard-coded onto the ROM chip on the card.
The NIC must have a connector depending upon the type of cable used. Card must have BNC
connector for co-axial cable and RJ-45 connector for twisted pair wiring.
Figure 4.1: Network Interface Card
4.2 Network Hub

An Ethernet hub, network hub, multiport repeater, or simply hub is a network hardware device
for connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network
segment. It has multiple input/output (I/O) ports, in which a signal introduced at the input of
any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming. A hub works at the
physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model.
Figure 4.2: Network Hub
Unlike a switch, a hub cannot filter the data, i.e. it cannot identify the destination of the packet,
so it broadcasts or send the message to each port. This is why it is known as a non-intelligent
or dumb device. Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports and map
destination addresses., the routing table is used to send/broadcast information across all the
ports.
Hubs are now largely obsolete, having been replaced by network switches except in very old
installations or specialized applications.
4.3 Network Switch

A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices together. Multiple data
cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different networked devices.
Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network packet
only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended. Each networked device
connected to a switch can be identified by its network address, allowing the switch to direct the
flow of traffic maximizing the security and efficiency of the network.
A switch is more intelligent than an Ethernet hub, which simply retransmits packets out of every
port of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to distinguish different
recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency.
A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses MAC addresses to forward data at the
data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also forward data at the network
layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality. Such switches are commonly
known as layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.
Figure 4.3: Network Switch
4.3.1 How does a network switch work?

Once a device is connected to a switch, the switch notes its media access control (MAC)
address, a code that’s baked into the device’s network-interface card (NIC). The NIC attaches
to an Ethernet cable that connects to the switch. The switch uses the MAC address to identify
which device’s outgoing packets are being sent, and where to deliver incoming packets.
The MAC address identifies the physical device and doesn’t change, while the network layer
(Layer 3) IP address, can be assigned dynamically to a device and change over time. (Think of
a MAC address as the VIN number on a car, and the IP address as the license plate.)
When a packet enters the switch, the switch reads its header, then matches the destination
address or addresses and sends the packet out through the appropriate ports that lead to the
destination devices.
To reduce the chance for collisions between network traffic going to and from a switch and a
connected device at the same time, most switches offer full-duplex functionality in which
packets coming from and going to a device have access to the full bandwidth of the switch
connection. (Imagine two people talking on smartphones as opposed to a walkie-talkie).
While it’s true that switches operate at Layer 2, they can also operate at Layer 3, which is
necessary for them to support virtual LANs (VLANs), logical network segments that can span
subnets. In order for traffic to get from one subnet to another it must pass between switches,
and this is facilitated by routing capabilities built into the switches.
4.3.2 Difference between a switch and a hub

A hub can also connect several devices together for the purpose of sharing resources, and the
collection of devices attached to a hub is known as a LAN segment.
A hub differs from a switch in that packets sent from one of the connected devices are broadcast
to all of the devices that are connected to the hub. With a switch, packets are directed only to
the port that leads to the addressed device.
Switches typically connect LAN segments, so hubs attach to them. Switches filter out traffic
destined for devices on the same LAN segment. Because of this capability, switches make more
efficient use of their own processing resources, as well as network bandwidth.
4.3.3 Types of Network Switch:

 Unmanaged switch
 Manageable switch
 Layer-3 switch
4.3.3.1 Unmanaged Switch

These switches operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model. These switches have no configuration
interface or options; hence no configuration can be done. These are cheap and plug and play
devices. But they cannot support any additional functionality and manageability.
Figure 4.4: Unmanaged Switch
4.3.3.2 Managed Switch

These switches also operate at Layer 2 of the OSI model like unmanageable switch but support
additional functionality and manageability like STP, VLANS, and SNMP etc. High-end or
"enterprise" switches, provide a serial console and command-line access via telnet and SSH, as
well as management via SNMP. More recent devices also provide a web interface. A Web-
managed switch is configured through a browser.
Figure 4.5: Managed Switch
4.3.3.3 Layer 3 Switch

These switches operates at Layer 3 of the OSI model. It has the functionality of switch and
router hence works either a switch or a router based on configuration. Layer 3 switches actually
differ very little from routers. A Layer 3 switch can support the same routing protocols as
network routers does. The Only difference is, a Layer 3 switch will typically possess only
Ethernet interfaces and will not possess any WAN ports.
Figure 4.6: Layer 3 Switch
4.4 Network Router

A router is a device that connects two or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It
serves two primary functions: managing traffic between these networks by forwarding data
packets to their intended IP addresses, and allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet
connection.
There are several types of routers, but most routers pass data between LANs (local area
networks) and WANs (wide area networks). A LAN is a group of connected devices restricted
to a specific geographic area. A LAN usually requires a single router.
Figure 4.7: Network Router Cisco 1900 Series
Figure 4.8: Back panel of Cisco 1921 Router
A WAN, by contrast, is a large network spread out over a vast geographic area. Large
organizations and companies that operate in multiple locations across the country, for instance,
will need separate LANs for each location, which then connect to the other LANs to form a
WAN. Because a WAN is distributed over a large area, it often necessitates multiple routers
and switches.
Note: A network switch forwards data packets between groups of devices in the same network,
whereas a router forwards data between different networks.
4.4.1 How does a Router work?

Think of a router as an air traffic controller and data packets as aircraft headed to different
airports (or networks). Just as each plane has a unique destination and follows a unique route,
each packet needs to be guided to its destination as efficiently as possible. In the same way that
an air traffic controller ensures that planes reach their destinations without getting lost or
suffering a major disruption along the way, a router helps direct data packets to their destination
IP address.
In order to direct packets effectively, a router uses an internal routing table — a list of paths to
various network destinations. The router reads a packet's header to determine where it is going,
then consults the routing table to figure out the most efficient path to that destination. It then
forwards the packet to the next network in the path.
4.4.2 Different types of Routers

In order to connect a LAN to the Internet, a router first needs to communicate with a modem.
There are two primary ways to do this:
4.4.2.1 Wireless Router

A wireless router uses an Ethernet cable to connect to a modem. It distributes data by converting
packets from binary code into radio signals, then wirelessly broadcasts them using antennae.
Wireless routers do not establish LANs; instead, they create WLANs (wireless local area
networks), which connect multiple devices using wireless communication.
4.4.2.2 Wired Router

Like a wireless router, a wired router also uses an Ethernet cable to connect to a modem. It then
uses separate cables to connect to one or more devices within the network, create a LAN, and
link the devices within that network to the Internet.
In addition to wireless and wired routers for small LANs, there are many specialized types of
routers that serve specific functions:
4.4.2.3 Core Router

Unlike the routers used within a home or small business LAN, a core router is used by large
corporations and businesses that transmit a high volume of data packets within their network.
Core routers operate at the "core" of a network and do not communicate with external networks.
4.4.2.4 Edge router

While a core router exclusively manages data traffic within a large-scale network, an edge router
communicates with both core routers and external networks. Edge routers live at the "edge" of
a network and use the BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to send and receive data from other
LANs and WANs.
4.4.2.5 Virtual Router

A virtual router is a software application that performs the same function as a standard hardware
router. It may use the Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP) to establish primary and
backup virtual routers, should one fail.
4.4.3 Difference between a Switch and a Router

Routers select paths for data packets to cross networks and reach their destinations. Routers do
this by connecting with different networks and forwarding data from network to network —
including LANs, wide area networks (WANs), or autonomous systems, which are the large
networks that make up the Internet.
In practice, what this means is that routers are necessary for an Internet connection, while
switches are only used for interconnecting devices. Homes and small offices need routers for
Internet access, but most do not need a network switch, unless they require a large amount of
Ethernet ports. However, large offices, networks, and data centers with dozens or hundreds of
computers usually do require switches.
4.4.4 Difference between a MAC address and an IP address

Network switches refer to MAC addresses in order to send Internet traffic to the right devices,
not IP addresses.
Every device that connects to the Internet has an IP address. An IP address is a series of
alphanumeric characters, like 192.0.2.255 or 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334. IP
addresses act like a mailing address, enabling Internet communications directed at that address
to reach that device. IP addresses often change: because there is a limited number of IPv4
addresses, user devices are typically assigned new ones when they form a new connection with
a network.
IP addresses are used at layer 3, which means computers and devices all over the Internet use
IP addresses for sending and receiving data, no matter which network they are connected to. All
IP packets include their source and destination IP addresses in their headers, just as a piece of
mail has a destination address and a return address.
In contrast, a MAC address is a permanent identifier for each piece of hardware, somewhat like
a serial number. Unlike IP addresses, MAC addresses do not change. MAC addresses are used
at layer 2, not layer 3 — which means they are not included in IP packet headers. In other words,
MAC addresses are not part of Internet traffic. They are only used inside a given network.
4.5 LAN Extender

A LAN extender (also network extender or Ethernet extender) is a device used to extend an
Ethernet or network segment beyond its inherent distance limitation which is approximately
100 meters (330 ft.) for most common forms of twisted pair Ethernet.
The extender forwards traffic between LANs transparent to higher network-layer protocols over
distances that far exceed the limitations of standard Ethernet.
Figure 4.9: LAN Extender
Figure 4.10: LAN Extender connectivity
Extenders that use copper wire include 2 and 4 wire variants using unconditioned copper wiring
(without load coils), to extend a LANs. Network extenders use various methods (line
encodings), such as TC-PAM, 2B1Q or DMT, to transmit information.
The LAN extender is used in pairs.
4.5.1 General Features

• Support speed up to 2 Mbps for distance coverage up to 5 km and up to 144 Kbps for
distance coverage up to 8 km. on 0.5 mm dia single pair cable.
• Generally operate in half/full duplex mode with 10baseT Ethernet.
• Support RJ11 for connecting Copper cable pair and RJ45 for Ethernet port.
• Support SNMP based management.
• Auto adjustment of operational speed, depending upon line condition.
• Configurable through console, telnet or http (web browser).
• Visual indications to know the status of Line, Ethernet and Power.
4.6 ADSL Modem and DSLAM

Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of digital subscriber line (DSL)
technology, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper
telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. Broadband connection
through ADSL Modem works through the copper wires of existing phone lines.
Figure 4.11: ADSL Modem
ADSL works by using spectrum above the band used by voice telephone calls. With a DSL
filter, often called splitter, the frequency bands are isolated, permitting a single telephone line
to be used for both ADSL service and telephone calls at the same time. ADSL is generally only
installed for short distances from the telephone exchange (the last mile), typically less than 4
kilometers.
At the telephone exchange, the line generally terminates at a digital subscriber line access
multiplexer (DSLAM) where another frequency splitter separates the voice band signal for the
conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL are typically routed over the telephone
company's data network and eventually reach a conventional Internet Protocol network.
4.6.1 ADSL Modem connection at customer side

Figure below shows an ADSL modem installed at a customer’s site. The local loop connects to
a splitter, which separates voice and data communications. The ADSL modem modulates and
demodulates the data, using DMT (Discrete Multitone Technique), and creates downstream and
upstream channels.
Figure 4.12: ADSL Modem at Customer side
4.6.2 ADSL Modem connection at exchange side

At the telephone exchange side, the situation is different. Instead of an ADSL modem, a device
called a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) is installed that functions similarly.
In addition, it packetizes the data to be sent to the Internet (ISP server).
Figure 4.13: ADSL Modem at Exchange side
5 Chapter
Network Addressing
5.1 Introduction
A network address is a unique physical or logical address that distinguishes a network node or
device over a computer or telecommunications network. The Network address is a numeric
number or address that is assigned to any new device that seeks access to the network or is
already part of the network.
5.2 Different levels of Network Addresses

Four levels of addresses are used in the TCP/IP protocols:
 Physical (link) addresses
 Logical (IP) addresses
 Port addresses
 Specific addresses
Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture (Figure below).
Figure 5.1: TCP/IP Network Addressing
5.2.1 Physical Addresses

The physical address is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in
the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level address.
The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size and format
of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit)
physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
5.2.2 Logical Addresses

Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks
can have different address formats. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host
can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
The logical addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is currently
a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet. No two publicly
addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.
5.2.3 Port Addresses

The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a
source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective
of data communications on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data from one
computer to another is not complete.
Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end
objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another process. For
example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At the same time,
computer A communicates with computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For
these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different
processes.
In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process
is called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
5.2.4 Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
Examples include the e-mail address (for example, xyz@yahoo.com) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.indianrailways.gov.in). The first defines the
recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to browse a website on the World Wide Web. These
addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending
computer.
5.3 IP Addressing
An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network. It designates
the specific location of a device on the network.
An IP address is a software address, not a hardware address—the latter is hard-coded on a

Network Interface Card (NIC) and used for finding hosts on a local network.
IP addressing was designed to allow a host on one network to communicate with a host on a
different network, regardless of the type of LANs the hosts are participating in.
IP addresses are two types:

 IPv4 (IP version 4)
 IPv6 (IP version 6)
Here we will discuss IPv4 since till now only IPv4 addresses are used over the network.
However, due to exhaustion of IPv4 address space, the world is moving towards IPv6.
An IP address (Ver. 4) consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four
sections, referred to as octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits). You can depict an IP
address using one of three methods:
 Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
 Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
One part of the address is designated as the network address, and the other part is designated as
either the subnet and host or just the node address.
The network address uniquely identifies each network. Every machine on the same network
shares that network address as part of its IP address.
The node address is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This part
of the address must be unique because it identifies a particular machine—an individual— as
opposed to a network, which is a group. This number can also be referred to as a host address.
Most of the complexity of working with IP addresses has to do with figuring out which part of
the complete 32-bit IP address is the network ID and which part is the host ID. The original IP
specification uses a system called address classes to determine which part of the IP address is
the network ID and which part is the host ID. A newer system, known as classless IP addresses,
is rapidly taking over the address classes system.
5.3.1 Classes of IP Address

The IP protocol defines five different address classes: A, B, C, D, and E (figure below). The
first three classes, A through C, each use a different size for the network ID and host ID portion
of the address. Class D is for a special type of address called a multicast address. Class E is an
experimental address class that isn’t used.
Figure 5.2: Classes of IP Address
The first four bits of the IP address are used to determine into which class a particular address
fits, as follows:
 If the first bit is a zero, the address is a Class A address.
 If the first bit is one and if the second bit is zero, the address is a Class B address.
 If the first two bits are both one and if the third bit is zero, the address is a Class C
address.
 If the first three bits are all one and if the fourth bit is zero, the address is a Class D
address.
 If the first four bits are all one, the address is a Class E address.
Figure below summarizes the details of each address class.
5.3.1.1 Class A addresses

Class A addresses are designed for very large networks. In a Class A address, the first octet of
the address is the network ID, and the remaining three octets are the host ID. Because only eight
bits are allocated to the network ID and the first of these bits is used to indicate that the address
is a Class A address, only 126 Class A networks can exist in the entire Internet.
However, each Class A network can accommodate more than 16 million hosts. Only about 40
Class A addresses are actually assigned to companies or organizations. The rest are either
reserved for use by the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) or are assigned to
organizations that manage IP assignments for geographic regions such as Europe, Asia, and
Latin America.
5.3.1.2 Class B addresses

In a Class B address, the first two octets of the IP address are used as the network ID, and the
second two octets are used as the host ID. Thus, a Class B address comes close to my
hypothetical scheme of splitting the address down the middle, using half for the network ID and
half for the host ID. It isn’t identical to this scheme, however, because the first two bits of the
first octet are required to be 10, in order to indicate that the address is a Class B address. As a
result, a total of 16,384 Class B networks can exist.
All Class B addresses fall within the range 128.x.y.z to 191.x.y.z. Each Class B address can
accommodate more than 65,000 hosts. The problem with Class B networks is that even though
they are much smaller than Class A networks, they still allocate far too many host IDs. Very
few networks have tens of thousands of hosts. Thus, careless assignment of Class B addresses
can lead to a large percentage of the available host addresses being wasted on organizations that
don’t need them.
5.3.1.3 Class C addresses

In a Class C address, the first three octets are used for the network ID, and the fourth octet is
used for the host ID. With only eight bits for the host ID, each Class C network can
accommodate only 254 hosts. However, with 24 network ID bits, Class C addresses allow for
more than 2 million networks.
The problem with Class C networks is that they’re too small. Although few organizations need
the tens of thousands of host addresses provided by a Class B address, many organizations need
more than a few hundred. The large discrepancy between Class B networks and Class C
networks is what led to the development of subnetting.
5.3.2 Subnetting
Subnetting is a technique by which the 32 bits available in an IP address can be used more
efficiently by creating networks that aren’t limited to the scales provided by Class A, B, and C
IP addresses.
Subnetting provides a more flexible way to designate which portion of an IP address represents
the network ID and which portion represents the host ID. With standard IP address classes, only
three possible network ID sizes exist: 8 bits for Class A, 16 bits for Class B, and 24 bits for
Class C. Subnetting lets you select an arbitrary number of bits to use for the network ID.
Two reasons compelled the use of subnetting. The first is to allocate the limited IP address space
more efficiently. If the Internet was limited to Class A, B, or C addresses, every network would
be allocated 254, 65 thousand, or 16 million IP addresses for host devices. Although many
networks with more than 254 devices exist, few (if any) exist with 65 thousand, let alone 16
million. Unfortunately, any network with more than 254 devices would need a Class B
allocation and probably waste tens of thousands of IP addresses.
The second reason for subnetting is that even if a single organization has thousands of network
devices, operating all those devices with the same network ID would slow the network down to
a crawl. The way TCP/IP works dictates that all the computers with the same network ID must
be on the same physical network. The physical network comprises a single broadcast domain,
which means that a single network medium must carry all the traffic for the network. For
performance reasons, networks are usually segmented into broadcast domains that are smaller
than even Class C addresses provide.
5.3.2.1 Subnets
A subnet is a network that falls within a Class A, B, or C network. Subnets are created by using
one or more of the Class A, B, or C host bits to extend the network ID. Thus, instead of the
standard 8-, 16-, or 24-bit network ID, subnets can have network IDs of any length.
5.3.2.2 Subnet masks

In order for subnetting to work, the router must be told which portion of the host ID should be
used for the subnet network ID. This is accomplished by using another 32-bit number, known
as a subnet mask.
Those IP address bits that represent the network ID are represented by a 1 in the mask, and those
bits that represent the host ID appear as a 0 in the mask. As a result, a subnet mask always has
a consecutive string of ones on the left, followed by a string of zeros.
To determine the network ID of an IP address, the router must have both the IP address and the
subnet mask. The router then performs a bitwise operation called a logical AND on the IP
address in order to extract the network ID. To perform a logical AND, each bit in the IP address
is compared to the corresponding bit in the subnet mask. If both bits are 1, the resulting bit in
the network ID is set to 1. If either of the bits are 0, the resulting bit is set to 0.
A subnet mask doesn’t represent any device or network on the Internet. It’s just a way of
indicating which portion of an IP address should be used to determine the network ID.
5.3.2.3 Default subnets

The default subnet masks are three subnet masks that correspond to the standard Class A, B,
and C address assignments. These default masks are summarized in Table as shown below.
Table 5.1: Subnet Mask

Class Binary Dotted-Decimal
A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0
B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0
C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0
Keep in mind that a subnet mask is not actually required in order to use one of these defaults.
That’s because the IP address class can be determined by examining the first three bits of the
IP address. If the first bit is 0, the address is Class A, and the subnet mask 255.0.0 is applied. If
the first two bits are 10, the address is Class B, and 255.255.0.0 is used. If the first three bits are
110, the Class C default mask 255.255.255.0 is used.
5.3.3 Private and public addresses

Any host with a direct connection to the Internet must have a globally unique IP address.
However, not all hosts are connected directly to the Internet. Some are on networks that are not
connected to the Internet. Some hosts are hidden behind firewalls, so their Internet connection
is indirect.
Several blocks of IP addresses are set aside just for this purpose, for use on private networks
that are not connected to the Internet or to use on networks that are hidden behind a firewall.
Three such ranges of addresses exist, summarized in Table shown below. Whenever you create
a private TCP/IP network, you should use IP addresses from one of these ranges.
Table 5.2: Private IP Addresses

Subnet Mask Private Address Range
255.0.0.0 10.0.0.1 – 10.255.255.254
255.255.240.0 172.16.1.1 – 172.31.255.254
255.255.0.0 192.168.0.1 – 192.168.255.254
5.3.4 Special purpose network addresses

Some IP addresses are reserved for special purposes and therefore cannot be assigned.
Table below lists such addresses and the reason behind their specialty.
Table 5.3: Special purpose Network Addresses
6 Chapter
Railnet
6.1 Overview
RAILNET is an internetwork of Railway Board and Zonal Railway HQs, Production Units,
Centralized Training Institutes, RDSO, CORE and other major Railway locations. Railnet is
currently built as an L3 VPN over core MPLS network of RCIL. This core network is
maintained by RCIL itself while the local network setup is maintained by S&T dept. of
respective Railway unit.
RAILNET provides various services like Internet, VoIP, E-Mail to railway users. Railnet is also
being used for providing internet bandwidth to Railways from Railnet gateways at Delhi,
Mumbai & Secunderabad with backup gateway at Kolkata.
In brief, RAILNET is an INTRANET of Indian Railways.
6.2 Railnet Architecture
6.2.1 Implementation
Each of the zonal railways shall have its own routing Autonomous System (AS). Each AS
should use OSPF as its internal routing protocol and should use MGT as the main route
exchange protocol.
A layer-3 MPLS-VPN called Railnet-core shall be made on RCIL 's MPLS network that should
connect to all the different zonal AS. Each zonal AS should connect to Railnet-core at a
minimum of two locations using different label edge router (LER) of RCIL. This will enhance
the reliability of the network. EBGP should be used to exchange routes between the Railnet-
core and Zonal AS.
Each zone and division is connected to an MPLS router of RCIL with appropriate bandwidth
ranging from 20Mbps to 300Mbps. Zonal Railways can increase/decrease this bandwidth based
on the demand themselves.
Railnet setup at the zonal and divisional HQs may have the following setup:
a) Railnet routers in high availability

b) UTM /Firewall
c) L3 switches working in 1+1 redundancy
d) DNS cache server
e) Network Management server
f) Other servers like DHCP, Web server, Antivirus server, Patch Management server,
Proxy server etc.
Figure 6.1: Railnet central setup at Railway Board
The network is designed in such a way that the path redundancy is inbuilt in the RAILNET
connectivity viz., use of two sets of L3/GBIC switches and two independent routers with 2MB
connectivity to lower hierarchy and as well for connecting to the higher hierarchy of the network
through RAILTEL MPLS network.
Railway Board, RDSO and NAIR/BRC should constitute independent AS and shall get
connected to the Railnet core directly. The other CTIs and PUs should be in the AS of their
zonal railways and shall route data through the zonal EBGP speaking router. The Railnet-core
should use IPv6. IPv4 data should be tunneled through the IPv6 Railnet-core using standard
protocols. The zonal AS shall use IPv4 as of now but should support the full IPv6 stack so that
migration to IPv6 can be done easily in due course.
Figure 6.2: Railnet setup at zones & PUs
Figure 6.3: Railnet setup at divisions
A typical Railnet connectivity at the divisional level is given in the Appendix A & B.
6.2.2 Features of Railnet LAN Architecture

i) The core switch should be a Layer 3 switch and the distribution/access switches shall
be Layer 2. The L2 switches should be with PoE support to power the IP phones &
security cameras.
ii) Layer 2 switches should be used in the LAN for the purpose of interconnecting user
nodes. These switches should support the following minimum features
a) VLANs
b) RSTP and MSTP
c) DHCP relay
d) DHCP snooping and trusted DHCP server support.
e) MAC address authentication through a radius server.
f) Non-blocking Gigabit PoE access ports
iii) The connectivity of Layer 2 switch and the Layer 3 switch shall be on OFC. This
shall be 1G or 10G multiple links with path protection.
iv) The distribution switch should have Gigabit access Copper ports. For connectivity to
the Layer 3 switch, SFP based optical ports shall be supported.
v) The connectivity between the user (clients) and the distribution/access switch shall
be through Cat-6 UTP cable/OFC.
vi) The connectivity to the user nodes shall be upgraded to 1Gbps.
vii) VLANs shall be used to limit the Ethernet broadcast domain in such a way that one
VLAN should normally not have more than 70-100 computers. For simplicity, one
VLAN should normally not cover more than one switch stack. One may configure
multiple VLANs in one switch stack.
viii) RSTP/MSTP may be configured in the switches with the Layer 3 core switch as the
root bridge.
ix) Switches must be configured to recognize a trusted DHCP server and should not
allow access to rough DHCP servers that may get enabled in the network.
x) Use of a DHCP server should be mandatory for a network node. Any node that does
not obtain its IP address from the DHCP server should not be allowed network access.
One way to achieve this may be to disable ARP based MAC learning and use DHCP
snooping for building MAC address tables in the switch.
xi) DHCP server shall be provided in redundancy. Two DHCP servers shall be provided
in the network. Both these DHCP servers shall provide IP addresses from disjoint
sets so as to avoid IP clash.
xii) All the local servers providing network services like DNS etc. shall be connected to
the Layer 3 switch in a different VLAN either directly or through a distribution/access
switch. In this case, manual configuration of IP addresses can be done.
xiii) When there are more than one Layer 2 switch at one location, they must be stacked.
Stacking is better than connecting the switches using 1/10G port as it provides better
speed and better forwarding rates.
xiv) Layer 3 switches shall be used as the gateway for the nodes in each of the VLAN.
Load balancing should be configured in such a way that one Layer 3 switch is the
gateway for half the total VLAN and the other Layer 3 switch is the gateway for the
balance VLANs. This will ensure that both the switches are in service and are handing
half of the traffic of the LAN.
xv) VRRP (Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol) should be configured between the
switches for the gateway IP for each VLAN. Thus, when one switch goes down the
other takes over the role of traffic forwarding/routing. With this arrangement manual
load balancing is achieved.
xvi) The L3 switches shall be connected to the routers/switches on the WAN side and
route the traffic out of the network towards MPLS network of RCIL.
6.3 Railnet IP Scheme

RAILNET has used the private IP address of 10.x.0.0/16. The IP addressing scheme is uniform
and consistent as shown in table 2.5. As uniform measure all the web servers are given with an
IP 10.x.2.19 and Router with an IP 10.x.2.1.
Table 6.1: Important Railnet/ Internet IP Addresses
Location IP Address Location IP Address

Rly Board 10.1.2.21
Zonal Railways
Central 10.31.2.32 Metro Railway www.mtp.indianrailw
ays.gov.in
Eastern er.indianrailways.gov.in East Central www.ecr.indianrailwa
ys.gov.in
Northern 10.2.2.19 North Western 10.141.2.19
North Eastern ner.indianrailways.gov.in East Coast 10.180.2.19
Northeast 10.42.2.20 South Western 10.205.2.21
Frontier
Southern sr.railnet.gov.in North Central 10.102.2.19
South Central www.scr.indianrailways.g West Central 10.150.2.19

ov.in
South Eastern 10.41.2.100 South East secr.indianrailways.go
Central v.in
Western 10.3.2.55
6.4 Email Addressing

The entire RAILNET is under a single domain railnet.gov.in. The generic email address of
RAILNET users will be user (official designation)@railway(code).railnet.gov.in.
For E.g.
Chairman, Railway Board: crb@rb.railnet.gov.in
Director General, RDSO dg@rdso.railnet.gov.in
CSTE, Northern Railway cste@nr.railnet.gov.in
6.5 LAN INFRASTRUCTURE

 All backbone wiring of LAN should be on the fiber, which is capable of working on
1GBPS.
 Manageable switches providing higher processing speed needs to be used.
 Network should be designed in such a way as to provide sufficient redundancy and the
concept of V-LAN should be introduced for traffic segregation wherever required.
 There will be four Internet Gateways at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, & Chennai provided by
RailTel. The distribution of Zonal Railways which will be served by these Gateways are
shown below.
Table 6.2: Railnet Gateways

Region Internet Zonal railways served
Gateway
Northern Delhi NR, NCR, NWR, NER, RDSO, CORE, DLW, RCF
Western Mumbai WR, CR, WCR
Eastern Kolkata ER, SER, ECR, NFR, ECoR, SECR, CLW
Southern Chennai SR, SWR, SCR, ICF, WAP
7 Chapter
Freight Operation Information System (FOIS)
7.1 Introduction
The Indian Railways carries nearly 1400 million tonnes of freight in a year. This translates to
about 5000 freight trains daily. The major commodities carried by Indian Railways are Coal,
Iron Ore, Foodgrains, Iron & Steel, Cement, Petroleum products, Fertilizer and Containerized
Traffic. There are specialized wagons to handle the transportation needs of the different types
of commodities. Unlike passenger carrying trains, freight trains do not run to a fixed schedule
and thus making freight operations a highly information intensive activity. Based on this
information managers make allocation decisions continually to dynamically optimize utilization
of resources like wagons, locomotives, crew and paths on the network. Real time information
allows good decision making and thus ensures high levels of mobility within the system. FOIS
began as an application to track and monitor the movement of wagons, locomotives and unit
trains. Now it is a complete management module for freight trains handling the billing and
revenue collections as well. It has played a major role in the improved wagon productivity on
Indian Railways and the objective is to use the information to further improve productivity,
customer service and thus meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy.
7.2 Features
The system has the capability of tracking and tracing consignments and publication of
information to the end users. Electronic Registration of Demand is also now a part of FOIS
which brings convenience, speed and ease to customers through online registering of indents
for Rakes and Wagons. To bring in greater transparency, Indian Railways have begun automatic
allotment of rakes to customers for select commodities based on priority rules, operational
restrictions, and commercial agreements. Services are provided to major customers by
integrating FOIS with their legacy systems. It is capable of keeping record of asset ownership
and maintenance, which is now being integrated to an SAP based asset maintenance
management system. Most importantly, it also generates performance reports for terminals,
train movements, asset use, financial statements and their trends over time that have been used
for bringing about systemic improvements.
7.3 FOIS Network

FOIS network is used for operation of Freight Operation Information System. FOIS Network
comprises various applications like Rake Management System (RMS) for handling the
operating portion and Terminal Management System (TMS) pertaining to the commercial
transactions.
It also hosts almost all the operational intelligence software that helps in train operation. A few
systems that are hosted on this network are Integrated Coach Management System, Crew
Management System, Parcel management System, Control Office Application etc.
FOIS network is also an IP network spanning the whole of Indian Railways. It uses OSPF (Open
Shortest Path First) as the routing protocol and its architecture is similar to that of UTN.
Figure 7.1: FOIS System Architecture
7.3.1 Key components of the FOIS system architecture

Intelligent terminals are placed at the field locations to capture the data from the place of activity
namely control offices, yards, goods sheds, C & W depot, Loco sheds etc., and connected to the
identified Application Server through reliable communication links for transaction processing.
Application servers are centrally placed at CRIS office. These servers are connected to the Zonal
Hd. Qrs., Divisional Control Offices, yards, interchange points, and good sheds etc., with a
reliable and integrated network. The servers are networked amongst themselves and to the
central server for global level transactions.
The Central Server provides management Reports at board level and acts as repository of all
the global data and also provides global services to maintain referential integrity of the
databases including master files.
7.3.2 Network Topology

In view of the Centralized application architecture, a star based network topology has been
designed as shown in the below figure. However, in order to provide alternate paths (to meet
the up time requirement of 99.9%) from reporting locations, a mesh has been created within
each zone so that every location has at least two paths to reach CRIS.
Figure 7.2: FOIS Network Topology
Each zonal HQ has been connected to central location (CRIS) on high bandwidth pipes. In
addition to this, another zonal location has been connected to CRIS using high capacity link.
Hence these two high bandwidth links shall cater to the entire transaction load generated by a
zone.
Railway telecommunication network, leased lines, BSNL, VSAT Technology as
communication media has been provided for reliable and fast means of data transfer.
V-SAT communication is provided to establish connectivity to the locations where other means
of communication like Railway’s own communication links/BSNL channels are not feasible.
7.3.3 Network Topology at Divisional level

The different FOIS Network topologies at the divisional level are shown in below figures:
(A) Direct Ethernet
At some of the stations only one FOIS PC is required and at such stations, the switch is not used
and the PC is connected directly with the router.
(B) Through LAN Extender
(C) Through DSLAM
(D) Through STM
A typical FOIS connectivity at the divisional level is given in the Appendix C & D.
8 Chapter
Unified Ticketing Network (UTN)
8.1 Overview
Unified Ticketing network is the unified PRS and UTS network. The PRS network is used to
issue reserved tickets to railway passengers. The UTS network is used to unreserved tickets to
railway passengers.
The object of Unified Ticketing Network is designed in such a way so that the PRS application
& UTS application can be benefited from each other in terms of reliability and recurring cost
optimization through efficient uses of network resources.
8.2 Network Architecture

The network is an IP network that spans all the stations with ticketing activity. The network is
a four-tiered network.
i) Tier-1: Zonal server
ii) Tier-2: Divisional hub centers
iii) Tier-3: Locations
iv) Tier-4: Terminals
Figure 8.1: UTN Network Architecture
 The UTN uses OSPF as the routing protocol. Every division has been divided into one
or more OSPF areas that are connected to area zero connecting the main UTS/PRS
servers.
 Each individual zone will form as a single autonomous system (AS) of OSPF ROUTING
DOMAIN
 OSPF AREA 0 shall be limited with in Central data center and the Routers in Area 0 act
as AREA BORDER ROUTER (ABR) for all the remaining AREAs.
 The remaining network is divided into different AREAs i.e. Division wise.
 The number of locations that can be configured in an AREA depends on many factors
such as media stability and processing capabilities of Router etc. On the basis of past
experience it shall not exceed 70 locations per AREA. Hence each division depending
on number of locations can be divided into more AREAs.
 Each OSPF area shall have at least two tier-2 locations, so that there are adequate uplinks
available to upper tier location. It is however desirable to have more than two tier-2
locations in one area provided the number of tier-2 locations in an Area is confined to
4-5% of the total location within the Area.
 No communication channel shall traverse two different OSPF Areas to ensure
acceptable Route convergence time i.e. time required to utilize the alternate path in the
event of primary path failure and scalability in Network.
 The stations below tier-1 location shall be networked by using mix of ‘inverted tree’ and
‘partial mesh’ topology.
 Each location shall be provided with a minimum of one alternate path to reach central
data center location.
 To the extent possible, the two links providing the primary and the secondary path for a
given location build using channels provided by different service providers (service
provider diversity).
 Maximum number of hops between booking location and central location for primary
and alternate (secondary) path shall be limited to 4 and 5 respectively such that, not to
exceed the comfortable level of ‘Round Trip Time‘ (RTT) between client terminal and
Server (130- 150m.secs) for smooth operations.
 The network shall utilize SDH based communications channels only to take the
advantage of inherent feature of SDH networks ring protection of SDH links. While
configuring communication channel ring protection is available at the physical/media
level in the service providers network shall be kept in view.
 In the network below the Tier-1 level, communication channels be built using Railway
owned OFC networks. However, channels may be hired from BSNL or other service
providers also.
Figure 8.2: Network Topology
The following diagram shows the arrangements at the station:
Router
Switch Thin
Client
Terminal Server
Thin
Client
Dumb
Terminal
Figure 8.3: UTN Connectivity at Station
8.2.1 Dumb Terminal

A dumb terminal is a monitor based input output device that does no independent processing,
but relies on the computational resources of a computer to which it is connected over a dedicated
circuit (or) through a network. Essentially an input/output (I/O) device with no internal
processing power, a dumb terminal is a simple input output device comprising a keyboard,
monitor, network interface and buffer memory that has only enough intelligence to respond to
simple control codes from a computer. This device comes with no hard drive and low powered
processors but can run applications on a central server. Normally such terminals are associated
with Mainframe computers.
8.2.2 Thin Client

A thin client (sometimes also called a lean or slim client) as shown in fig 1.8, is a computer or
a computer program, which depends on some other computer (its server) to fulfill its traditional
computational roles. This stands in contrast to the traditional fat client, a computer designed to
take on these roles by it.
The most common type of modern thin client is a low-end computer terminal, which
concentrates solely on providing a graphical user interface to the end-user. The server provides
the remaining functionality, in particular the operating system.
8.2.3 Terminal Server

Terminal server is a hardware device or small server that provides terminals (DTs, TS kiosks,
Line chart printers, Fare display Boards, Electronic chart displays & other RS-232 devices) with
a common connection point to a local area network. Terminals connect to the terminal server
from their RS-232C serial port over a TCP/IP network. It connects to the TCP/IP network via a
10/100 BASE-T compatible Ethernet port.
Figure 8.5: Network Topology below Tier 2 level
Figure 8.4: PRS & UTS unification network (phase IV) at Secunderabad division of S C Railway
9 Chapter
Network Maintenance & Troubleshooting
9.1 Introduction
The term troubleshooting refers to the process of identifying problems with a network through
a rigorous and repeatable process and then solving those problems using testable methods.
Troubleshooting is more effective than trying things at random until the network functions
because it allows you to target individual network components, testing each for function, and
encourages you to document your process.
9.2 Network troubleshooting tools

There are a number of tools available for you to use when it comes to diagnosing and treating
network issues. These tools may exist in the computer’s operating system itself, as standalone
software applications or as hardware tools that you can use to troubleshoot a network.
9.2.1 Windows Command-Line Tools

The following commands can be entered into the command prompt on Windows PCs one at a
time to reveal specific information about the network status:
> ping
The most commonly used network tool is the ping utility. This utility is used to provide a
basic connectivity test between the requesting host and a destination host. This is done by
using the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) which has the ability to send an echo
packet to a destination host and a mechanism to listen for a response from this host.
Simply stated, if the requesting host receives a response from the destination host, this
host is reachable.
This utility is commonly used to provide a basic picture of where a specific networking
problem may exist. For example, if an Internet connection is down at an office, the ping
utility can be used to figure out whether the problem exists within the office or within the
network of the Internet provider. Figure below shows an example of the ping utility being
used to obtain the reachability status of the locally connected router.
> tracert/ traceroute

Typically, once the ping utility has been used to determine basic connectivity, the
tracert/traceroute utility can used to determine more specific information about the path
to the destination host including the route the packet takes and the response time of these
intermediate hosts. Figure below shows an example of the tracert utility being used to find
the path from a host inside an office to RDSO Railnet site. The tracert utility and
traceroute utilities perform the same function but operate on different operating systems,
Tracert for Windows machines and traceroute for Linux/*nix based machines.
> ipconfig
One of the most important things that must be completed when troubleshooting a
networking issue is to find out the specific IP configuration of the affected hosts.
Sometimes this information is already known when addressing is configured statically,
but when a dynamic addressing method is used, the IP address of each host can potentially
change often. The utilitiy that can be used to find out this IP configuration information is
the ipconfig utility. This Windows TCP/IP can tell you a host’s IP address, subnet mask
and default gateway, alongside other important network information.
> nslookup
A DNS utility that displays the IP address of a hostname or vice versa. This tool is useful
for identifying problems involving DNS name resolution. DNS is used by everyone using
the Internet to resolve commonly known domain names. The nslookup utility can be used
to lookup the specific IP address (es) associated with a domain name. If this utility is
unable to resolve this information, there is a DNS issue. Along with simple lookup, the
nslookup utility is able to query specific DNS servers to determine an issue with the
default DNS servers configured on a host. Figure below shows an example of how the
nslookup utility can be used to query the associated IP address information.
> netstat
A utility that shows the status of each active network connection. This tool is useful for
finding out what services are running on a particular system. Figure below shows an
example of the netstat utility being used to display the currently active ports on a Windows
machine.
> pathping
In an effort to take advantage of the benefits of both the ping and tracert/traceroute
commands, the pathping utility was developed. This utility takes the functionality and
information that can be obtained from these types of tools and provide a more detailed
single picture of the path characteristics from a specific host to a specific destination. This
utility provides information about latency and packet loss on a network. It can help you
troubleshoot issues related to network packet loss.
> route
This utility is used to display the current status and enables manual updating of the routing
table on a host. While the use of the route utility is limited in common situations where
the host only has a single IP address with a single gateway, it is vital in other situations
where multiple IP address and multiple gateways are available. It can be used to
troubleshoot static routing problems in a network.
> arp
This utility displays and modifies the IP-to-Physical address translation tables used by
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). It lets the network admin view the ARP cache and
add or delete cache entries. It can be used to address problems having to do with specific
connections between a workstation and a host.
> putty
When connecting to a variety of different types of equipment, a telnet, SSH or serial client
is required, when this is required both the PuTTY and Tera Term programs are able to
provide these functionalities.
PuTTY is a free and open-source terminal emulator, serial console and network file
transfer application. It supports several network protocols, including SCP, SSH, Telnet,
rlogin, and raw socket connection. It can also connect to a serial port. The name "PuTTY"
has no official meaning. PuTTY was originally written for Microsoft Windows, but it has
been ported to various other operating systems.
9.2.2 Network Troubleshooting Applications

In addition to command-line tools, there are also a number of standalone applications that can
be used to determine the status of a network and to troubleshoot issues. Some of these
applications may be included in the system that you are working with, while others may need
to be installed separately.
 Packet Sniffer: Provides a comprehensive view of a given network. You can use this
application to analyze traffic on the network, figure out which ports are open and identify
network vulnerabilities.
 Port Scanner: Looks for open ports on the target device and gathers information,
including whether the port is open or closed, what services are running on a given port
and information about the operating system on that machine. This application can be used
to figure out which ports are in use and identify points in a network that could be
vulnerable to outside attacks.
 Protocol Analyzer: Integrates diagnostic and reporting capabilities to provide a

comprehensive view of an organization's network. You can use analyzers to troubleshoot
network problems and detect intrusions into your network.
 Wi-Fi Analyzer: Detects devices and points of interference in a Wi-Fi signal. This tool
can help you to troubleshoot issues in network connectivity over a wireless network.
 Bandwidth Speed Tester: Tests the bandwidth and latency of a user’s internet
connection. This application is typically accessed through a third-party website and can
be used to confirm user reports about slow connections or download speeds.
9.3 Network Management system and Traffic Monitoring (Ref. IR Telecom

Manual):
Network Management System (NMS) is an essential part of any data network to monitor the
health of the network. It is an essential tool for managing the complete data networks using
SNMP protocol based on open standards. The Network Management System can do various
tasks like configuration, diagnostic, provisioning, security and originating various MIS reports
to be utilized by the Network Manager. NMS also has the facility of performance monitoring
through resource utilization graphs. As far as possible traffic logs from various network devices
may be recorded at a central server for analysis purposes.
Indian Railway Data Network being very large in size there may be several NAMes at different
locations controlling different segments of the network. Each division and zone should have
integrated NMS at their Network Operation Center (NOC) in standby mode. Network
administrators will exercise total control over the network through the NMS.
The policy for network access control shall be approved by PCSTE and should be reviewed
periodically.
The password for router, switches, servers, modems, UTM, CCTV and all other IT equipment
in the division to be available with Test Room. It is to be ensured by all JE/SSE/Tele/Incharge
to get it noted down to Test Room during commissioning of any system.
9.4 List of the Test and Measuring Equipment

 Communication Analyzer
 Ethernet Analyzer
 Protocol Analyzer
 The measuring instruments generally used are
 BER meter
 LAN cable meter
 Other latest measuring instruments if any
9.5 Measurements
The various measurements which are required to be done on Data network for troubleshooting
and for performance monitoring of the network are listed below:
 BERT: Simple bit error ratio test

 G. 821,G.826 and M.2100 performance analysis: The G.821 is an out of service
measurement whereas G.826 and M.2100 are in-service measurements. The tests are
normally conducted for 48hrs. These tests are required for the WAN segment for
different bandwidth. For the LAN segment Ethernet analyzer is used for testing and
monitoring the performance.
 Jitter and Wander: Intrinsic Jitter, Maximum Tolerable Jitter, Jitter Transfer Function,
Wander.
 LAN cable: By using LAN cable meters
 Any other measurements or tests suggested by manufacturers.
9.6 Fault Diagnosis

The fault diagnosis is categorized into three
 Hardware
 Software
 Media/Channel
9.6.1 Hardware
The datacom equipment is provided with visual indications by which the status of the equipment
can be known. The next option is by login into the equipment and test the equipment with
standard commands given by the manufacturer.
9.6.2 Software
The software part like IOS of Routers and other intelligent/managed equipment can be checked
or upgraded to higher versions depending on the type of the fault encountered.
9.6.3 Media/Channel
The media which actually connects two locations through interface device can be checked with
testing facility given on the interface device or through measuring instruments. The BER of the
media/channel is generally measured to know the percentage of errors and other related
information.
9.7 Maintenance Schedule

i) The datacom equipment shall be kept clean and tidy without dust and shall be cleaned
regularly and to be inspected once in a year by SSE/JE incharge.
ii) The diversity channels shall be checked at least once a month by switching off main
channels and ensure that automatic switch over/routing is taking place.
iii) Condition of underground cables to be checked by carrying out routine checks done for
U/G cables.
iv) OFC cables and connectors to be checked as per routine checks done on OFC.
v) The Antivirus patches to be updated in NMS system time to time.
vi) In addition to the above, any other checks suggested by manufacturers
---
Appendix A: Railnet at BSL Division
Figure 9.1: Railnet connectivity at BSL Division, Central Railway
Appendix B: Railnet at RTM Division
Figure 9.2: Railnet connectivity at RTM Division, Western Railway
Appendix C: FOIS at BSL Division
Figure 9.3: FOIS Connectivity at BSL Division, Central Railway
Appendix D: FOIS at RTM Division
Figure 9.4: FOIS Connectivity at RTM Division, Western Railway
References
1. IRISET Telecom Notes TA3 – Data Networks of IR
2. IRISET Telecom Notes TA 2 - Data Communication & Networking
3. IR Telecom Manual 2021
4. Technical literature collected from BSL Div, RTM Div. & WR
5. Information available online
Issue of correction slips

The correction slips to be issued in future for this publication will be numbered as
follows:
CAMTECH/S&T/2022-23/DATA-NETWORK/1.0# XX date .......
Where “XX” is the serial number of the concerned correction slip (starting from 01
onwards).
CORRECTION SLIPS ISSUED
Sr. No. of Date of issue Page no. and Item Remarks

Correction No. modified
Slip
CAMTECH Publications
CAMTECH is continuing its efforts in the documentation and up-gradation of information on
maintenance practices of Signalling & Telecom assets. Over the years a large number of
publications on Signalling & Telecom subjects have been prepared in the form of handbooks,
pocket books, pamphlets and video films. These publications have been uploaded on the Internet
as well as Railnet.
For viewing/downloading these publications
On Internet:
Visit www.indianrailways.gov.in
Go to About Indian Railways → Railway Board Directorates →Efficiency &
Research→CAMTECH, Gwalior → Other Important links → Publications for download →S&T
Engineering (Yearwise/ Subjectwise).
On Railnet:
Visit Railway Board website at 10.1.2.21
Go to Railway Board Directorates → →Efficiency & Research→CAMTECH, Gwalior → Other
Important links → Publications for download →S&T Engineering (Yearwise/ Subjectwise).
Alternatively the CAMTECH publications can be viewd/downloaded through following link on

Internet/Railnet:
https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,304,366,538,2713
,2718,2722,2731
A limited number of publications in hard copy are also available in CAMTECH library which
can be issued by deputing staff with official letter from controlling officer. The letter should be
addressed to Director (S&T), CAMTECH, Gwalior.
For any further information regarding publications please contact:
Director (S&T) – 0751-2470185 (O)(BSNL)
SSE/Tele - 9755549287 (CUG)
Or
Email at dirsntcamtech@gmail.com Or FAX to 0751-2470841 (BSNL)
Or
Write at
Director (S&T)
Indian Railways Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology,
In front of Hotel Adityaz, Airport Road, Maharajpur,
Gwalior (M.P.) 474005
Our Objective
To upgrade Maintenance Technologies and Methodologies and achieve

improvement in Productivity and Performance of all Railway assets and
manpower which inter-alia would cover Reliability, Availability and
Utilisation.
If you have any suggestion & any specific comments, please write to us:
Contact person : Director (Signal & Telecommunication)
Postal Address : Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology, Opposite
Hotel Adityaz, Near DD Nagar, Maharajpur,
Gwalior (M.P.) Pin Code – 474 005
Phone : 0751 - 2470185
Email : dirsntcamtech@gmail.com



INDIAN RAILWAYS
Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology
Maharajpur, Gwalior (M.P.) – 474 005

Handbook On Networking and Data Networks of Indian Railways

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केवल कार्ाालर्ीन उपर्ोग हे तु

For Official Use Only

भारत सरकार - रेल मंत्रालय

नेटवर्किं ग एवं भारतीय रेल्वे के डेटा नेटवकक

Maharajpur, Gwalior - 474005

नेटवर्किंग एवं भारतीय रे ल्वे के डेटा नेटवकक

Prepared by: Ashish Telang, SSE (Telecom)/ CAMTECH

फरवरी 2023/ February 2023

In Indian Railways, there is rapid modernization in computerization of various railway

CAMTECH is continuously making efforts in documentation and upgradation of

It gives me great pleasure in presenting this handbook to the telecom maintenance

CAMTECH Gwalior Jitendra Singh

Computer Network is an interconnection between computers, which enables one computer

The interconnection of a large number of data processing devices through suitable

CAMTECH Gwalior Avadhesh Kumar Yadav

Preface ...................................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iv

1.3 Network Topology ................................................................................................................ 1

1.4 Types of Networks ................................................................................................................ 3

1.5 Data Networks of IR ............................................................................................................. 4

3.2 Types of Network Media .................................................................................................... 11

3.3 Ethernet ............................................................................................................................... 15

3.4 Ethernet Twisted Pair Cable ............................................................................................. 19

3.5 PoE (Power over Ethernet) ................................................................................................ 21

3.7 How to Crimp Cat6 Cables (RJ45 plugs) ......................................................................... 25

4.4 Network Router .................................................................................................................. 35

4.5 LAN Extender ..................................................................................................................... 38

4.6 ADSL Modem and DSLAM............................................................................................... 39

5.2 Different levels of Network Addresses .............................................................................. 41

5.3 IP Addressing ...................................................................................................................... 42

6.3 Railnet IP Scheme ............................................................................................................... 53

9.2 Network troubleshooting tools........................................................................................... 64

9.7 Maintenance Schedule ........................................................................................................ 72

Appendix A: Railnet at BSL Division ..................................................................................... 73

Figure 9.3: FOIS Connectivity at BSL Division, Central Railway .......................................... 75

NOC Network Operation Center

1.1 Definition of a Computer Network

1.2 Networking Configuration

1.2.1 Client - Server Networking

1.2.2 Peer-to-peer Networking

1.3 Network Topology

Figure 1.1: Networking Topologies

1.3.1 Bus Topology

1.3.2 Star Topology

1.3.3 Ring Topology

1.4 Types of Networks

1.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

1.4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

1.4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

1.5 Data Networks of IR

 Passenger Reservation System (PRS) & Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS)

 e-Drishti – A Dashboard for Indian Railways

Figure 2.1: OSI vs TCP/IP Model

2.2 TCP/IP Standard

Figure 2.2: TCP/IP Model

2.2.1 Physical and Data Link Layers

2.2.2 Network Layer

2.2.2.1 Internetworking Protocol (IP)