PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 50, Issue 4, August 2023

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2023, 50(4): 851–864. RESEARCH PAPER

Development, sand control mechanism and

hydrocarbon accumulation of beach-bar sandstone
in a saline lake basin: A case from the Neogene of
southwestern Qaidam Basin, NW China
WANG Yanqing1, LIU Zhanguo1, SONG Guangyong1, *, ZHU Chao1, LI Senming1, WU Yanxiong2,
XIA Zhiyuan1, SHI Qi2, JIA Shenglong2, WANG Zhaobing2, WEI Xuebin2
1. PetroChina Hangzhou Institute of Geology, Hangzhou 310023, China;
2. PetroChina Qinghai Oilfield Company, Dunhuang 736202, China

Abstract: Based on the data of field outcrops, drilling cores, casting thin sections, well logging interpretation, oil/gas shows
during drilling, and oil/gas testing results, and combined with modern salt-lake sediments in the Qinghai Lake, the Neogene
saline lake beach-bars in southwestern Qaidam Basin are studied from the perspective of sedimentary characteristics, devel-
opment patterns, sand control factors, and hydrocarbon accumulation characteristics. Beach-bar sand bodies are widely de-
veloped in the Neogene saline lake basin, and they are lithologically fine sandstone and siltstone, with wavy bedding, low-angle
cross bedding, and lenticular-vein bedding. In view of spatial-temporal distribution, the beach-bar sand bodies are stacked in
multiple stages vertically, migratory laterally, and extensive and continuous in NWSE trending pattern in the plane. The
stacking area of the Neogene beach-bar sandstone is predicted to be 3 000 km2. The water salinity affects the sedimentation
rate and offshore distance of beach-bar sandstone, and the debris input from the source area affects the scale and enrichment
of beach-bar sandstone. The ancient landform controls the morphology and stacking style of beach-bar sandstone, and the
northwest monsoon driving effect controls the long-axis extension direction of beach-bar sandstone. The beach-bars have a
reservoir-forming feature of “one reservoir in one sand body”, with thick beach-bar sand bodies controlling the effective reser-
voir distribution and oil-source faults controlling the oil/gas migration and accumulation direction. Three favorable exploration
target zones in Zhahaquan, Yingdongeastern Wunan and Huatugou areas are proposed based on the analysis of reservoir-forming
elements.

Key words: Qaidam Basin; Neogene; saline lake basin; sedimentary characteristics; beach-bar; sand control mechanism; res-
ervoir characteristics

Introduction other basins in China [4–7], demonstrating broad explora-

Beach-bar refers to sand bodies commonly developed
in lake basins, and is an umbrella term for beach and bar.
As beach and bar sand bodies are usually contraposed
and difficult to be separated from each other, the term
"beach-bar" is commonly used to describe beach and bar
sand bodies [1–3]. Beach-bar sandstone possesses abundant
oil and gas resources and favorable exploration and de-
velopment potential. Oil and gas fields with beach bars as
reservoirs have been discovered in the Uinta Basin in the
United States, and Bohai Bay, Songliao, Sichuan and
tion prospects of beach-bar sandstone. Many under-
standings on the sedimentary characteristics [8–11], genesis
mechanism [12–15], controlling factors [11, 15–16] and sedimen-
tary models [14, 17] of beach bars have been made by schol-
ars at home and abroad. It is believed that beach-bar
sandstones are characterized by fine grains, thin sand
and mud interbeds, wide distribution and thicker bar
than beach sandstone. They are formed by re-sedimenta-
tion of peripheral delta deposits after undergoing trans-
formation by waves, lake currents or storms in lake bays

Received date: 08 Feb. 2023; Revised date: 10 Apr. 2023.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: songgy_hz@petrochina.com.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the PetroChina Science and Technology Project (2021DJ0402; 2021DJ0202).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(23)60433-1
Copyright © 2023, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development Co., Ltd., CNPC (RIPED). Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864
and margins. Their development scale and distribution
pattern are controlled by various factors [12, 18–19].
During the Neogene period, the Qaidam Basin was
covered by the deposits of saline lake facies [20–22]. Many
scholars at home and abroad have conducted research on
sedimentary reservoirs in this basin [23–27], and reported
the development of clastic and carbonate reservoirs. Ear-
lier researches mainly focused on the continental clastic
rocks and lacustrine carbonate rocks, but less on the
beach bars. With the deepened oil and gas exploration
and increasing investment on the exploration of litho-
logic reservoirs, beach bars have attracted high attention
from oil fields, and researches on beach-bar sandstones
have been carried out successively [28–30]. The results
showed that beach-bar sandstones are developed better
in saline lake basins, and have a wider distribution under
the influenced of saline water bodies. It is silt and fine
sandstone characterized by small single-layer thickness,
low-angle cross-bedding, and high content of lime and
mud matrix. Controlled by factors such as saline water
and hydrodynamic conditions, the sandstone tends to
migrate toward the center of the lake basin. Present ex-
ploration faces problems including where to find favor-
able lithologic oil and gas reservoirs, what factors control
the distribution of beach-bar sandstones, and what the
characteristics of oil and gas accumulation are in
beach-bar sandstones.
This paper uses typical sedimentary characterization,
particle size analogy and analysis, multi-factor control
and other methods to conduct comprehensive analysis of
outcrops and sedimentary characteristics of the saline
lake basin based on field outcrops, cores, particle size
measurement, present sediments in the Qinghai Lake,
and experimental and testing results. It’s confirmed that
delta and beach bar deposits are developed. After inves-
tigating the sedimentary sequences, development char-
acteristics and sand control factors of beach bars, the
sedimentary model of beach bars is established. It's pro-
posed that the development of oolitic limestone and mic-
rite at the top of beach-bar sandstone is one of the typical
features of saline lake facies. The spatiotemporal distri-
bution characteristics and multi-factor sand control
mechanism of beach-bar sandstone are clarified. It’s
found that the overlapped area of the Neogene beach-bar
sandstone is predicted to be 3000 km2, which strongly
support the exploration plan of the Neogene lithologic
reservoirs in the Qaidam Basin.
1. Overview
The Qaidam Basin is located in the northern part of
the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, surrounded by the Kunlun
Mountains, Altun Mountains, and Qilian Mountains. It is
850 km long from east to west, 150–300 km wide from
north to south, covering an area of approximately 121 000
km2, where the Neogene sedimentary thickness achieves
 852 
up to 17 200 m. In the southwest of the basin (called
southwestern Qaidam Basin), the Neogene strata include,
from bottom to top, the Paleocene–Eocene Lulehe Forma-
tion (E1+2), the lower member of the Oligocene Lower
Ganchaigou Formation (E31) and the upper member of the
Lower Ganchaigou Formation (E32) of the Oligocene, the
Miocene Upper Ganchaigou Formation (N1), the Pliocene
Lower Youshashan Formation (N21), the Upper Yousha-
shan Formation (N22) and the Shizigou Formation (N23) of
the Neogene, and the Holocene–Pleistocene Qigequan
Formation (Q1+2) of the Quaternary. This study area is
located in the southwestern Qaidam Basin, where the
Neogene is the main target for high-efficiency exploration
and reserve and production increase of lithologic oil res-
ervoirs recently. Therefore, the Upper Ganchaigou For-
mation and the Lower Youshashan Formation of the
Neogene are the geological objectives in this study (Fig.
1).
2. Sedimentary characteristics of beach-bar
sandstone of saline lake facies
Field outcrops, drilling cores, thin sections, and other
data are used to determine the lithology, bedding, thick-
ness and other petrologic features of beach-bar sandstone
in the study area. The lithofacies assemblages, sedimentary
cycle patterns, and development laws are summarized.
2.1. Sedimentary lithofacies assemblages of
beach-bar sandstones
Firstly, taking the Dongchaishan outcrop as an example
(Fig. 2a), the Upper Ganchaigou Formation strata consist
of gray and brownish-gray mudstone, sandy mudstone
and siltstone and fine sandstone. The sandstone is
0.2–3.0 m thick, has good sorting and low matrix content,
with low-angle swash cross-bedding (Fig. 2b), ripple
marks (Fig. 2c), parallel bedding and flamy structures
(Fig. 2d), low-angle cross-bedding (Fig. 2e) and burrows.
The sandstones are characterized by flat bottom and
convex top on the section, and the single-phase sandstone
has characteristic reverse graded particles.
Secondly, the data of 3580 m cores from 91 wells in the
study area show that the lithology of beach bars is silt-
stone and fine sandstone with single-layer thickness
mostly ranging from 0.5 m to 3.0 m and locally reaching
5.0 m, and the sand-to-ground ratio is 0.1–0.3. Low-angle
cross-bedding (Fig. 3a–3c), wave ripple (cross)-bedding
(Fig. 3d–3f ), wave-lenticular-vein bedding (Fig. 3g, 3h)
are commonly observed in the cores. The particles are
dominantly reverse graded and composite graded, and
associated with algal limestone and micrite, indicating
they are lacustrine deposits.
2.2. Sedimentary cycle patterns of saline lake
beach-bar sandstones
After an integrated analysis of the sedimentary
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Fig. 1. Location of the study area and composite histogram of the southwestern Qaidam Basin.

Fig. 2. Sedimentary characteristics of the Neogene Upper Ganchaigou Formation on Dongchaishan section.

sequences and petrological features revealed by drilling stone has single-layer thickness of 1.1 m, good sorting and
cores, three sedimentary cycle patterns are identified in extremely low matrix content, reflecting a slowly de-
the beach bars in the southwestern Qaidam Basin (Fig. 4). creasing lake level and stronger hydrodynamics under
(1) Single-stage reverse cycle with upward-coarsening the condition of a relatively steady lake level.
grains (Fig. 4a). From bottom to top, the lithology changes (2) Stacking pattern of multiple reverse cycles (Fig. 4b).
from mudstone, fine sandstone with wavy, lenticular and From bottom to top, the lithology varies from mudstone,
low-angle cross-bedding, fine sandstone with cross-bedd- muddy siltstone, fine sandstone with multiple stages of
ing, to oolitic limestone and micrite (Fig. 5). The sand- low-angle cross-bedding, oolitic sandstone, sandy oolitic
 853 
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Fig. 3. Typical sedimentary phenomena of Neogene beach-bar sandstones in southwestern Qaidam Basin. (a) Well Zhap-
ing1, 3273.00–3274.80 m, fine sandstone, low-angle cross-bedding; (b) Well Zhaping1, 3277.20–3277.35 m, fine sandstone,
low-angle cross-bedding; (c) Well Zha2, 3125.93–3126.12 m, fine sandstone, low-angle cross-bedding; (d) Well Zhaping1,
3277.30–3277.42 m, fine sandstone, low-angle cross-bedding – wave ripple bedding; (e) Well Zhaping1, 3283.80–3283.88 m,
siltstone, low-angle cross-bedding – wave ripple bedding; (f) Well Zhaping1, 3249.60–3249.65 m, siltstone, wave ripple bed-
ding; (g) Well Zhaping1, 3465.98–3466.20 m, fine sandstone, wavy-vein bedding; (h) Well Zhaping1, 3409.69–3409.81 m,
siltstone, wavy-lenticular bedding.

Fig. 4. Typical sedimentary sequences of the beach-bar sandstone of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation in Zhahaquan area.

limestone and micrite (Fig. 5b). The sandstone has a sin-
gle-layer thickness of about 1 m and a staking thickness
of 4.4 m, good sorting and extremely low matrix content,
reflecting an oscillating fall of lake level and changing
hydrodynamics.
(3) Compound pattern of normal and reverse cycles
(Fig. 4c). The lithology from bottom to top changes from
mudstone, fine sandstone with low-angle cross-bedding,
fine siltstone with wavy bedding, fine-medium sandstone
with low-angle cross-bedding, medium-coarse sandstone
with cross-bedding, sandy oolitic limestone and micrite.
The sandstone has good sorting and low matrix content,
reflecting a rising-falling lake level and weaken-
ing-strengthening hydrodynamic condition.
Oolitic limestone and oolitic sandstone occur at the top
of the beach-bar sandstones in all the three cycles (Fig. 4),
which is a typical feature that distinguishes saine lake
basin beach bars from freshwater lake basin ones. Their
 854 
development is closely related to some superficial ooids
developed in the turbulent area influenced by wave ac-
tion. Feng [31] suggested that the formation of ooids is
mainly controlled by the intensity of water flow that
transports the core of ooids and the turbulence intensity
of the saline water environment. When the turbulence
intensity is lower than the capability transporting the
maximum particles but greater than the capability
transporting the minimum particles, both ooids and
oolitic sandstone are developed in the ooid-forming en-
vironment, and most of the ooids are superficial ooids.
2.3. Development of beach-bar sandstone in saline
lake basin
2.3.1. Cross-well section of saline lake basin beach bars
Based on the distribution of the Neogene sedimentary
facies zones in the southwestern Qaidam Basin, eight
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Fig. 5. Typical photos of sedimentary cycles of beach bars in Zhahaquan area (under cross-polarized light, x100). (a) Well
Zhaping1, 3242.68 m, oolitic limestone; (b) Well Zhaping1, 3244.37 m, lime-bearing inequigranular feldspar sandstone; (c)
Well Zhaping1, 4744.44 m, lime-bearing silty-very fine feldspar sandstone; (d) Well Qieshen2, 4743.54 m, calcarenitic oolitic
limestone; (e) Well Qieshen2, 4743.73 m, lime-bearing medium–coarse feldspar lithic sandstone; (f) Well Qieshen2, 4744.44
m, gypsum-bearing fine–medium lithic feldspar sandstone.

Fig. 6. W–E cross-well section of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation in the Yuejin–Zhahaquan area, southwestern Qaidam
Basin (see section position in Fig. 1).

nearly E-W cross-well sections were established along the
direction from the provenance to the basin center. For
example, the southern section across Well Yue75 and Well
Zhatan1 (Fig. 6) reveals that the sediments mainly come
from the west, and controlled by terrigenous clastic sup-
ply and progradation and retrogradation of delta sand
bodies. Wells Zhaxi1 and Zha2 located near the braid-
ed-river delta front mainly deposit thick beach-bar sand
bodies (single-layer thickness of 2.0–5.0 m), while wells
Zha9 and Zhatan1 far away from the braided river delta
mainly deposit thin beach-bar sand bodies (single-layer
thickness of 0.2–1.5 m). The correlation results show that
the beach bars are multi-layered and overlapped verti-
cally, and extend with long distance in single stage (gen-
erally over 5 km) and are continuous and overlapped
 855 
overlapped laterally. They also have the distribution
characteristics of lateral migration towards the center of
the lake basin under the influences of lake level fluctua-
tion and progradation and retrogradation of delta sand
bodies.
After a comparative analysis of sedimentary facies, it is
believed that the beach-bar sandstones in the southwest-
ern Qaidam Basin have the distribution of multiple-stage
vertically stacked pattern, lateral migration, and con-
tinuous stacked pattern in the plane.
2.3.2. Planar distribution of saline lake basin beach bars
This paper uses outcrops and cores data to determine
the sedimentary types, cored wells to establish the single
well facies, cross-well section correlation to analyze the
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variation and facies zone boundaries between wells, and
seismic sedimentology and sand content to predict the
distribution of sand bodies. The sedimentary facies maps
of 14 stratigraphic units in the Upper Ganchaigou For-
mation and Lower Youshashan Formation were estab-
lished by the combination of point, line and plane to
characterize the planar distribution and vertical evolu-
tion of the Neogene beach bar sandstone in the saline
lake basin. Four sand groups (Fig. 7) were selected as
examples, during the depositional period of the Upper
Ganchaigou Formation (Fig. 7a, 7b), two river systems
were developed mainly under the control of the source
from the west. The braided river and braided river delta
system formed by the north one is mainly distributed
near the Hongliuquan–Gasi area, while the braided river
and braided river delta system formed by the south one is
distributed in the Yuejin–Zhahaquan area. Furthermore,
under the influence of the Dongchaishan braided river
delta system and the Qigequan–Ganchaigou fan delta
system, the sand-to-ground ratio is less than 10% in the
outer front of delta. The total area of the braided river
and braided river delta system and the fan delta system is
2750 km2, while the shore-shallow lake area is 4700 km2.
In areas such as Shizigou, Huatugou, Youshanshan,

Fig. 7. Sedimentary facies map of some sand groups in the Upper Ganchaigou–Lower Youshashan formations, south-
western Qaidam Basin.
 856 
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Yingdong, Zhahaquan and Wunan, sand bodies of lacus-
trine beach bar microfacies were developed, with
sand-to-ground ratio ranging from 10% to 30%, and cov-
ering 1700 km2, which accounts for 36% of the
shore-shallow lake area. Thin lacustrine sandstone and
carbonate rock are widely distributed in the other areas
of the shore-shallow lake. They are NW–SE trending and
intersect with the lake shoreline in oblique en echelon
distribution. Single-stage sand bodies are small, but dif-
ferent stages of sand bodies are overlapped and widely
and continuously distributed. The Lower Youshashan
Formation (Fig. 7c, 7d) inherited the sedimentary char-
acteristics of the Ganchaigou Formation, with obvious
progradation features of the sand bodies of two western
braided river and braided river delta systems towards the
lake basin. The measurements based on well data show
that the longest migration is 20 km, the beach-bar sand
bodies migrated towards southern Ganchaigou, eastern
Yingdong, eastern Zhahaquan and Wudong in the lake
basin. The shoal-shallow lake area is 5300 km2, of which
the sedimentary area of beach-bar sandstone is 2300 km2,
accounting for 43% of the shoal-shallow lake area. Thin
lacustrine sandstone and carbonate are widely distrib-
uted. They are NW–SE trending and obliquely intersect
with the lake shoreline in en echelon distribution.
3. Controlling factors of the development of
saline lake basin beach-bar sandstone
Lacustrine beach bar deposits are widely developed in
both ancient and modern lake basins. It is generally be-
lieved that factors such as the shape of lake basin bottom,
hydrodynamics, source supply, and lake level change are
the controlling factors for the development of beach bar
deposits [2, 7, 22]. This paper mainly studies the sand control
factors of saline lake basin beach bars from the aspects of
water salinity, debris input, ancient landform and hy-
drodynamic conditions.
3.1. Water salinity controls the sedimentation rate
and offshore distance of beach-bar sandstone
The density of saline water at 20 C is 1.05–1.23 g/cm3,
while that of fresh water is 1.0 g/cm3, which results in
certain differences in sedimentation.
Firstly, simulation experiments were conducted to ver-
ify the control of water salinity on the sedimentation rate
and transport distance of sediments. In the experiments,
saline solutions with mass fractions of 0, 10‰, 20‰,
30‰, 40‰, 50‰, 60‰, and 70‰ were prepared, and
coarse, medium, fine, silt, and mixed samples (40%
coarse siltstone + 30% fine siltstone + 30% fine sandstone)
were used. The first step was to observe the sedimenta-
tion rates. The sample particles were poured into glass
tubes (1.2 m high) containing solutions with different
salinities, and the sedimentation time was recorded with
a stopwatch (Table 1). The results show that salinity has a
small effect on the sedimentation rates of coarse and
medium samples, but significantly influences the sedi-
mentation rates of fine and silt samples and the fi-
ne-grained ones within mixed sample. For example, the
initial time that silt particles reach the bottom of the
glass tube in saline solutions with mass fractions of 30‰
and 70‰ was 1.66 times and 4.52 times that in freshwater,
respectively, and the time that all silt particles took to
reach the bottom is 1.39 times and 2.72 times that in
freshwater, respectively. According to the calculation in
Table 2, the sedimentation rates of fine siltstone in saline
solutions with mass fractions of 30‰ and 70‰ are only
48.4% and 15.8% of that in freshwater, respectively, indi-
cating that water salinity has a controlling effect on the
sedimentation rate of fine-grained rocks (Fig. 8). In the

Table 1. Sedimentation rates of different-grained samples at different salinities

Initial time when some particle reaches the bottom/s Final time when all particle reaches the bottom/s
Salinity/‰ Coarse Medium Coarse silty Mixed Coarse Medium Coarse Complex
Fine sands Fine sands
sands sands sand sands sands sands silty sand sand
0 13.01 16.30 23.37 31.77 28.56 15.10 5.23 10.01 28.68 16.21
10 14.46 17.55 26.78 33.66 32.32 15.90 7.62 13.12 32.34 29.00
20 14.66 17.86 29.04 41.56 35.04 16.70 8.91 15.33 36.55 41.12
30 14.95 19.55 33.63 52.87 36.20 17.20 9.42 19.11 39.79 58.89
40 15.43 20.75 35.23 69.04 38.91 17.80 11.15 22.23 43.94 74.23
50 16.78 20.95 38.78 82.72 39.38 17.90 14.09 26.36 46.88 97.18
60 17.26 21.82 40.48 102.31 43.28 18.20 16.78 31.19 58.46 125.24
70 18.27 22.46 41.02 143.71 46.25 18.80 20.44 38.46 78.11 186.27

Table 2. Sedimentation rates and transport distances of different-grained samples at different salinities
Average sedimentation rate/(cms1) Transport distance/m
Salinity/‰
Fine sand Coarse silty sand Fine silty sand 24 h 48 h
0 26.68 19.47 11.89 2.34 3.21
10 23.17 18.14 9.80 2.41 3.53
20 21.31 14.71 7.44 2.79 3.92
30 18.37 11.60 6.13 3.12 4.46
40 17.48 8.92 5.10 3.51 4.99
50 15.43 7.47 4.17 3.89 5.54
60 14.89 5.82 3.29 4.44 6.04
70 13.22 4.61 1.87 4.92 6.87
 857 
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864
Fig. 8. Sedimentation rates of different grains at different salinities.
Fig. 9. Transport distances of mixed sands at different
salinities.
second step, the same salinity, mixed samples, and water
flow velocity were applied in the experiment for transport
distance measurement (Table 2). Within 24 h, the trans-
port distance of mixed sand in freshwater and saline so-
lutions with mass fractions of 30‰ and 70‰ was 2.34,
3.12 and 4.92 m, respectively. The transport distance in
30‰ and 70‰ solutions is 1.33 times and 2.1 times that
in freshwater, respectively; it is 1.39 times and 2.14 times
that in freshwater, respectively within 48 h. It’s observed
that fine-grained sediments have larger transport dis-
tances in saline water bodies, and the higher the water
salinity is, the longer the transport distance is. It indi-
cated that water salinity has a controlling effect on the
transport distance of fine-grained sediments (Fig. 9).
Secondly, water salinity has a significant impact on the
distribution range of sediments. The author [20] has con-
ducted systematic sampling of the Neogene strata in the
Qaidam Basin, quantitative restoration of paleosalinity
with the Couch formula using data of boron element and
clay mineral content, and calculated the paleosalinity
using salt inclusion to determine the planar variation of
the paleosalinity. In this study, additional mudstone
samples were collected from the key sand groups in N1
 858 
and N21 in the southwestern Qaidam Basin, and the same
methods were used for paleosalinity restoration. It should
be noted that there is a large discrepancy between the
paleosalinity restored by the boron element method and
the inclusion method, but the paleosalinity restored by
the boron element method can be used as a normal sys-
tematic error. The superimposition of paleosalinity on the
sedimentary facies map (Fig. 10) shows that the salinity is
8‰–10‰ in the delta front, 8‰–18‰ in the shoal-
shallow lake, higher than 18‰ in the semi-deep lake, and
higher than 8‰ in the lake basin. It indicates that beach
bars are developed in the lake water with a salinity of
8‰–16‰, generally ranging between 10‰ and 18‰.
Therefore, water salinity controls the sedimentation rate
and offshore distance of beach-bar sand bodies.
3.2. Debris input controls the scale and accumulation
of beach-bar sand bodies
It was shown by the sedimentary facies distributions of
different sand groups in the southwestern Qaidam Basin
(Fig. 10) that during the N1–N21 period, the northern water
system extended 70 km and controlled an area of 1100
km2, and the southern water system extended 95 km and
controlled an area of 1700 km2 in the study area, indicat-
ing that the debris input of the southern water system
was greater than that to the northern one. The major
areas that the northern water system influenced include
Huatugou, Youshanshan and Gasai, etc., where the
beach-bar sand bodies have a distribution width of 10–15
km and a distribution area of 400–700 km2. The major
areas that the southern water system affected include
Yuejin, Zhahaquan and Wunan, etc., where the beach-bar
sand bodies have a distribution width of 10–35 km and a
distribution area of 800–1100 km2. It indicates that the
distribution width and area of beach-bar sandstones are
wider with sufficient debris supply.
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Fig. 10. Sedimentary facies maps of key sand groups of Upper Ganchaigou–Lower Youshashan formations superimposed
on paleosalinity maps, southwestern Qaidam Basin.

3.3. Ancient landform controls the shape and
stacking style of beach-bar sandstone
During the depositional period of the Upper Gang-
chaigou Formation, the southwestern Qaidam Basin had
a geomorphological setting higher in the west and lower
in the east, including uplift, slope and depression, and
developed two types of ancient landforms (Fig. 11a). One
is the ancient low uplift in the slope area locally, repre-
sented typically by Gasi area, a nearly NS-trending low
uplift area. On its west side, braided river delta front
deposits were developed. With a medium-intensity of
debris supply, thick beach-bar sandstones with a few lay-
ers were developed on the ancient low uplift. Blocked by
the low uplift, its east side was dominated by carbonate
rock and mudstones and had relatively limited distribu-
tion of beach-bar sandstones (Fig. 11b). The other one is a
wide and gentle slope area, represented typically by
Zhahaquan area that is adjacent to the braided river delta
front to the west. With abundant debris supply, the
beach-bar sand bodies were vertically stacked and later-
ally continuous in wide and large distribution (Fig. 11c).
Ancient landforms have a significant controlling effect on

Fig. 11. Ancient landforms and sections of beach-bar sand bodies of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation in southwestern
Qaidam Basin.
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 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864
beach bars that are barely distributed in low paleouplift
areas and extensive in wide and gentle slope areas.
3.4. Monsoon driving effect controls the long axis
extension direction of beach-bar sandstone
Some scholars [32–35] have conducted researches on pa-
leowind direction identification and analyzed its impact
on beach bar sedimentation. Shang and Hu et al. [36–37]
proposed that wave action affects beach bar sedimentary
differentiation and lake waves control the formation and
distribution of beach-bar sandstone. Jiang et al. [2] re-
ported that waves are the driving force while the prove-
nance is the material basis for the formation of beach-
bars, and put forward a formation pattern of "wind (wind
waves)–provenance (sediment supply)–basin (basin evo-
lution)" for beach bars. Wang et al. [18] believed that hy-
drodynamics is the main geological force, and influenced
by the northwest winds, beach bars were mainly devel-
oped on the east, north, and south of the lake basin in the
Qinghai Lake. According to the hydrodynamic character-
istics (Fig. 12a, 12b) and the distribution of sand bodies
(Fig. 12c, 12d) of the Erlangjian sand spit of the Qinghai
Lake, the irregular shape and directional distribution of
the sand spits are controlled by the northwest wind
waves. An et al. [38] studied the evolution of the mon-
soon-arid environment in China and the growth of the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau since the Neogene. They suggested
that monsoons controlled the climate of China's conti-
nental environments since 24 Ma (Neogene), and mon-
soons were intensified since 16 Ma. The modern distribu-
Fig. 12. Modern lake current and typical beach bars in the Qinghai Lake, and beach-bar sandstone map superimposed on
wave and coastal current map in southwestern Qaidam Basin.
 860 
tion of beach bars in the Qinghai Lake is greatly influ-
enced by wind direction. The Neogene beach bars in the
southwestern Qaidam Basin are distributed in NW–SE en
echelon (Figs. 7 and 12e). Based on previous research
results of monsoons and Qinghai Lake, it is believed that
the Neogene beach-bar sandstone in the saline lake basin
are influenced by the northwest monsoon, and the joint-
ing effect of wind-driven waves, coastal currents and lake
currents are the key drivers of the en echelon distribution
of beach-bar sandstone in the southwestern Qaidam Basin.
4. Hydrocarbon accumulation of beach-bar
sandstone in saline lake basin and its favorable
exploration areas
4.1. Distribution of oil and gas in beach-bar
sandstones and related reservoir types
4.1.1. Distribution of oil and gas in beach-bar
sandstones
Based on the recent well test results, oil and gas shows
in core samples, and well logging interpretations of the
Neogene in the southwestern Qaidam Basin, six E-W oil
and gas distribution sections were compiled. For example,
on the Yuejin–Zhahaquan–Wunan (Well Yue73–Well
Wu26) section (Fig. 13), braided river delta sand bodies
are sourced from the west, and Yuejin area is dominated
by the braided river delta front. The braided river delta of
Upper Ganchaigou–Lower Youshashan formations has
progradation features, and the influence from late delta
sand bodies expands to the Zha 104 wellblock. The sand
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Fig. 13. The Upper Ganchaigou–Lower Youshashan stratigraphic section across wells Yue73 and Wu26 in southwestern
Qaidam Basin (see Fig. 7b for the section position; GR—Gamma ray; Rt—resistivity).

bodies in the braided river delta front are well developed
and have good connectivity. Oil layers are only developed
at the bottom of N21 in Well Zha3, while other layers are
interpreted as water layers and dry layers by logging data.
The shoal-shallow lake facies covers a large area with
widely distributed beach-bar sand bodies. The beach-bar
sand bodies have favorable oil-bearing properties. They
have multiple oil layers vertically, and horizontally are
stacked and continuous, migratory laterally. However, not
all beach-bar sand bodies contain oil, presenting a res-
ervoir distribution featured by "one reservoir in one sand
body".
4.1.2. Reservoir types and accumulation patterns
one sand body". However, effective hydrocarbon accu-
mulation depends on the spatiotemporal configuration of
oil sources, faults, and effective sand bodies. Therefore,
oil and gas accumulation patterns were established for
the beach-bar sandstone reservoirs in the saline lake ba-
sin (Fig. 15). Comprehensive analysis indicates that thick
beach-bar sand bodies in depression and structural wings,
and oil-source faults control the oil and gas accumulation.
Specifically, thick beach-bar sand bodies control the dis-
tribution of effective reservoirs and oil-source faults con-
trol the main migration direction of oil and gas.
4.2. Favorable exploration areas of beach-bar sand-
stones

Based on well test results and oil and gas distribution
characteristics, five oil reservoir sections were compiled.
For example, on the Upper Ganchaigou Formation oil
reservoir section across Well Zha213–Well Zha11 in Zha-
haquan area (Fig. 14), there is no unified oil-water inter-
face in oil reservoirs. Oil reservoirs are developed at
structural highs (such as Well Zha201 and Well Zha11),
structural lows (such as Well Zha210), and slopes (such as
Well Zha4). According to the structural features, it’s be-
lieved that there are three types of reservoir, namely
structural reservoir, structural-lithologic reservoir and
lithologic reservoir in Zhahaquan area. The correlation
among source rocks, faults and beach-bar sand bodies
reveals a reservoir-forming feature of "one reservoir in
 861 
Through an analysis of the distribution and spatial and
temporal relationship among hydrocarbon source rocks,
faults, and beach-bar sand bodies, combined with oil and
gas shows, three favorable exploration targets of the
beach bars of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation–Lower
Youshashan Formation are proposed in the southwestern
Qaidam Basin (Fig. 7).
(1) The southern Zhahaquan area (Fig. 7a), with the
lower part of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation as the
target layer. This area has similar source-storage-trans-
portation conditions for oil and gas to Zhahaquan area
where industrial oil and gas have been found, and thick
beach-bar sand bodies are developed. Therefore, the
southern Zhahaquan area is a realistic exploration target
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864

Fig. 14. The Upper Ganchaigou oil reservoir section across wells Zha213 and Zha11 in southwestern Qaidam Basin (see
Fig. 7c for the section position).

Fig. 15. Hydrocarbon accumulation patterns of beach-bar sand bodies in saline lake basin.

for beach bar reservoirs.
(2) The Yingdong–eastern Wunan area (Fig. 7b–7d), lo-
cated in the Yingxiongling structural belt. The upper part
of the Upper Ganchaigou Formation and the Lower You-
shashan Formation are the target layers. Industrial oil
and gas have been discovered in neighboring Yingdong
and Wunan areas, and lacustrine carbonate reservoirs
and oil-source faults are developed. Therefore, this area is
an important option for the exploration and discovery of
large-scale beach bar reservoirs in the southwestern
Qaidam Basin.
(3) The eastern Huatugou area (Fig. 7d), located in the
 862 
Yingxiongling structural belt. The Lower Youshashan
Formation is the target layer. In neighboring Huatugou
and Youyuangou areas, industrial oil and gas have been
discovered with developed beach-bar sand bodies and
lacustrine carbonate reservoirs, and oil-source faults are
developed near the Hongshi hydrocarbon generation
depression. Therefore, this area is an important target for
the exploration and discovery of large-scale beach bar
reservoirs in the southwestern Qaidam Basin.
5. Conclusions
The beach bar sand bodies developed in the Neogene
 WANG Yanqing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2023, 50(4): 851–864
saline lake basin in the southwestern Qaidam Basin are
fine sandstone and siltstone with wavy bedding, low-
angle cross bedding, and lenticular-vein bedding. There
are three types of sedimentary sequences, i.e., single-stage
upward-coarsening sequence, overlapping of multi-stage
upward-coarsening sequences, and upward-fining mixed
with upward-coarsening sequences. The top of beach-bar
sandstone generally develops oolitic limestone and mic-
rite. The Neogene beach bars in saline lake basin are
stacked in multiple stages, and migratory laterally and
extensive and continuous in NW–SE trending pattern.
The stacking area of beach-bar sandstone is predicted to
be 3000 km2.
The water body of saline lake basin with salinity rang-
ing from 8‰ to 18‰ influences the sedimentation rate
and offshore distance of the beach bars. Terrigenous de-
bris input controls the scale and enrichment of beach-bar
sandstones, which is distributed within a range of 3–15
km from the delta front. Ancient landform controls the
morphology and stacking style of beach-bar sand bodies.
Less beach-bar sand bodies are distributed in low uplift
area, while more in wide and gentle slope area. The
northwest monsoon has an impact on the long axis ex-
tension direction of beach-bar sandstones, resulting in
the NW–SE en echelon distribution.
The beach bars have a reservoir-forming feature of
"one reservoir in one sand body", with thick beach-bar
sand bodies controlling the effective reservoir distribu-
tion, oil-source faults controlling the direction of oil and
gas migration and accumulation direction, and the good
match of oil-source faults and thick beach-bar sand bod-
ies in depression area and structural wings control oil
and gas distribution and accumulation. Three favorable
exploration targets were proposed: (1) southern Zhahaq-
uan area, (2) Yingdong–eastern Wunan area, and (3)
eastern Huatugou area. They provided important basis
for the exploration breakthrough to shallow lithologic oil
reservoirs in the southwestern Qaidam Basin. High-yield
industrial oil and gas flows have been obtained from Well
Qietan2 drilled in Zhahaquan area. The development
characteristics and distribution prediction of lacustrine
beach-bar sand bodies are of great significance to the
extensive exploration of lithologic oil and gas reservoirs
in the southwestern Qaidam Basin.
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