RESEARCH PAPERS

A SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW FROM A BUSINESS STUDENT’S

PERSPECTIVE

Prepared to Complete the Assignment of Community Science Course (Sosyoloji)

Lecturer:
Prof. Dr. Hande Uyar Oğuz

FROM:

AULİA SALSABİLA (23670203092)

BACHELOR OF BUSINESS PROGRAM

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS SCIENCES
BARTIN UNIVERSITY
MARCH 2024
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT............................................................................................................ i
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
A. Background of the Paper.............................................................................................. 1
B. Problem Formulation ................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER II SOCIOLOGY: A BRIEF HISTORY AND APPROACH ........................... 3
A. Sociological Theories .................................................................................................... 3
B. The Relevance of Sociology in the Business Context ................................................. 3
C. The History of Sociology .............................................................................................. 4
1. History ..................................................................................................................... 4
2. Founders of Sociology as a Science ........................................................................ 4
D. Modern Sociological Approaches ................................................................................ 6
3. Sociological Imagination ......................................................................................... 8
4. Sociologist Paradox ................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER III CULTURE ..................................................................................................... 9
A. DEFINITION OF CULTURE ..................................................................................... 9
B. Cultural Lag ................................................................................................................ 10
C. Culture Shock .............................................................................................................. 10
D. Cultural function......................................................................................................... 10
E. Cultural Elements ....................................................................................................... 10
F. Basic concepts of Culture ........................................................................................... 12
1. High Culture .......................................................................................................... 12
2. Popular Culture ...................................................................................................... 12
3. Elements of Material Culture as Elements of High Culture .................................. 13
4. Counter-Culture ..................................................................................................... 13
5. Ethnocentrism ........................................................................................................ 13
6. Cultural Relativity ................................................................................................. 13
7. Multiculturalism .................................................................................................... 13
8. Cultural Change ..................................................................................................... 14
G. Globalization and Culture .......................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER IV SOCIALIZATION ....................................................................................... 16
A. Socialization ................................................................................................................. 16
1. Definition of socialization ..................................................................................... 16

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 2. Forms of Socialization ........................................................................................... 16
3. Socialization Factors.............................................................................................. 16
B. Important Agents for Socialization ........................................................................... 17
C. Social role..................................................................................................................... 17
D. Status ............................................................................................................................ 17
E. Stages of Socialization................................................................................................. 17
1. Childhood .............................................................................................................. 17
2. Adolescence ........................................................................................................... 18
3. Adulthood .............................................................................................................. 18
4. Old Age.................................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER V Social Groups ................................................................................................. 19
A. Definition of Social Groups ........................................................................................ 19
B. Forms of Social Groups .............................................................................................. 19
1. Main Group............................................................................................................ 19
2. Secondary Group ................................................................................................... 19
3. In-Groups ............................................................................................................... 20
4. Out-groups ............................................................................................................. 20
5. Reference Group .................................................................................................... 20
C. Group-Individual Interaction: The Influence of Groups on Individuals .............. 20
1. Erosion of Individuality ......................................................................................... 20
2. Supervision and control ......................................................................................... 21
3. Increase Courage and Risk Taking ........................................................................ 21
4. Creating Fear ......................................................................................................... 21
5. Social Contagion.................................................................................................... 21
D. Some Important Highlights About Groups .............................................................. 21
1. Group Norms ......................................................................................................... 21
2. Group Roles ........................................................................................................... 21
3. Group Leadership .................................................................................................. 22
4. Discrimination ....................................................................................................... 22
Physical Evidence ................................................................................................................... 23
A. Main Reference Book ................................................................................................. 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 25

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND OF THE PAPER

Sociology is a field that investigates society and the interactions between
individuals. In other words, sociology seeks to understand social structures, patterns of
behaviour, and the dynamics of relationships between individuals, groups, and
institutions. In addition, sociology not only observes what happens in society, but also
tries to explain why things happen and how these patterns affect human social life. In
addition, sociology looks at how social change occurs historically and what factors
influence it. Sociology becomes more important in the era of Society 5.0, which is
characterized by the application of digital technology in every aspect of life. The
Society 5.0 era presents new challenges for understanding the impact of technology on
society, changes in social interaction patterns, and changes in social structure.
Sociology can help us to understand these complex dynamics, both in terms of good
things such as technological innovation and increased global connectivity and bad
things such as social inequality and privacy issues. As such, sociology has important
value as a guide to understanding and responding to the changes occurring in the era of
Society 5.0 and as a foundation for building an inclusive and sustainable society. Thus,
understanding and applying sociological concepts is essential to face the challenges and
take advantage of the opportunities that arise in the era of Society 5.0.
Students must be able to understand sociology, especially during education.
The study of the social structure, dynamics and patterns of society and the way humans
interact with their social environment is known as sociology. Students can gain a better
understanding of sociology and various topics such as social change, social
stratification, group dynamics, and organizational culture. With this understanding, they
can gain a better understanding of society. Students gain a better understanding of the
social dynamics that occur in the lecture environment through sociology education,
which helps them understand the current institutional structure, as well as the
relationships between students, teachers, and administrative employees. Students with
knowledge of sociology tend to be better able to adjust to the academic environment,
understand prevailing social standards, and participate actively in campus activities. In
addition, understanding sociology helps students acquire the critical, analytical, and
reflective skills needed to evaluate and solve various social problems. This can improve
their academic results, both in terms of paper writing, presentations, and their
involvement in lecture discussions. More generally, understanding sociology helps
students become better people because it helps them understand social differences,
appreciate cultural diversity, and communicate and cooperate with people from
different backgrounds. Therefore, understanding sociology is not only important for
students' academic lives, but also beneficial for their future social, personal and
professional well-being.
Business students can gain a better understanding of the social dynamics that
occur in and around business organizations because sociology studies social
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interactions and the structure of society, which are essential components in the business
world. They also have a better understanding of how social structures, organizational
cultures, and interactions between individuals function in a business environment,
which gives them an edge in studying in this field. Students who study sociology can
also gain critical, analytical, and problem-solving skills that are essential for dealing
with the various opportunities and challenges in the complex business world. Therefore,
sociology helps business students understand the social context of enterprises and
human behaviour within them. It also enhances their ability to adapt and lead change.
Modern business also pays more attention to issues such as sustainability, social
inequality, and business ethics.
Business students confront a lot of problems when using sociology in
everyday life. One of the biggest problems is incorporating the theoretical concepts of
sociology into business practice. Business students often concentrate on technical and
economic material when studying business, ignoring the importance of understanding
the social dynamics that influence business behaviour. In addition, business education
courses often use quantitative and technical approaches, while other courses focus on a
more qualitative and holistic understanding of sociology. The relationship between
social and business aspects is difficult for business students to understand. They also
find it difficult to use their sociological knowledge when making business decisions. In
addition, another challenge is the lack of awareness of the importance of understanding
sociology in shaping the critical and analytical thinking required in the complex
business world. Business students often lack training in applying sociological
perspectives in solving problems encountered in their business context, such as
managing diversity in the workplace, navigating power dynamics in organizations, and
understanding the social implications of business decisions. There is also the challenge
of overcoming the stigma of sociology as a science that is considered less practical and
relevant in a business world dominated by market logic and profit. To solve this
problem, a holistic educational approach that integrates sociological theories with
business applications is needed. In addition, it is imperative to raise awareness of how
our understanding of sociology helps us think critically, be flexible and successful in
the dynamic and complex world of business.

B. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Based on the background of this research, there is a problem formulation that
is the subject of this research study, namely:
1. How is an overview of sociological theories according to perspectives and studies
from the point of view of business students?
2. How does the influence of sociological theories on the social environment,
especially on social stratification, politics, religion, and culture in society?
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CHAPTER II
SOCIOLOGY: A BRIEF HISTORY AND APPROACH
A. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological theories are the main intellectual foundations that form the main
foundation in the understanding of social structures, functions, and dynamics in society.
These theories often emerge because of empirical observations about social reality and
attempts to make sense of them in various aspects of social life, ranging from
interactions between individuals to complex patterns in social organization. Examples
of sociological theories include conflict theory, developed by Karl Marx and Max
Weber. This theory emphasizes the role of structure in the acquisition of wealth and
power as well as conflicts between classes in society. Like Emile Durkheim and Talcott
Parsons, functionalist theories argue that society is a system made up of interrelated
parts that function to ensure stability and balance. Figures like George Herbert Mead
and Erving Goffman began the theory of symbolic interactionism, which emphasizes
the meanings individuals give to their actions and the role of symbols in social
interaction.
Outside the academic world, sociological theory has its applications. For
example, conflict theory can help us realize the social inequalities around us and
encourage us to contribute to more equitable social change. Functionalism theory can
also offer a broader view of how different institutions in society interact with each other
to maintain social balance. On the other hand, symbolic interactionism theory offers a
better understanding of how different institutions interact with each other.
Sociological theories are very useful for understanding and explaining social
phenomena, but it cannot be denied that they also have weaknesses and shortcomings.
Some criticisms of sociological theories include the tendency to generalize social
phenomena, the lack of attention to aspects of individuality and individual freedom in
society, and the difficulty of empirically testing and verifying the theory. In addition,
sociological theories often ignore rapid social change, especially due to technological
advances and globalization. Therefore, it is important for sociology researchers to
create new theories that are more responsive to current social changes and complexities
B. THE RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE BUSINESS CONTEXT
Businesses need sociology to understand the social dynamics that influence
organizations, markets and customer behavior. Using a sociological perspective,
businesses can discover the social factors that influence business selection,
organizational structure and marketing tactics. To see the dynamics inside and outside
the company, concepts such as social interaction, organizational culture, and social
stratification are essential. Businesses can also understand social issues such as social
inequality, sustainability and cultural change, which can affect their reputation and
sustainability. Thus, the integration of sociology in a business context not only provides
a better understanding of the social factors that influence business success, but also
enables companies to address complex challenges in an ever-changing business
environment and develop more holistic and sustainable strategies.
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C. THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY

1. History
Sociology is a science that studies the interaction and behavior of human
society based on the history of human thought (Zencirkiran, 2016: 25). In the 19th
century, significant social changes occurred in Europe, especially in England and
France due to the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution which opened
the history of world sociology. In the era of the Industrial Revolution, sociology
had an important value in determining the social role in aspects of community life
both in the structural field of work to the industrialization process which was
undergoing radical transformation (Zencirkiran, 2016: 26-27). With the role of
sociology in the field of industrialization, various fields of society began to
experience significant developments to create a new social order and habits in an
anarchic society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 29). Then in the era of the French Revolution,
sociology had a very vital role, especially in providing social stability in the midst
of chaos due to the transformation of power from the kingdom to the republic
(Zencirkiran, 2016: 30). The impact of the war also created significant social
stratification and deviance. With the application of sociological theory, social
stability and social order can be achieved by systematically developing theories to
provide solutions to the chaos that occurred in the era of the Industrial Revolution
and the French Revolution. In other words, the industrial revolution and French
revolution have provided a fundamental role in the creation of modern sociological
theory (Zencirkiran, 2016: 30).

2. Founders of Sociology as a Science

The following are some of the scholars who are considered the founders of
sociology, a field of science that is very important today, among others:

1) Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Comte's sociology is an explanation of the period of uncertainty that followed
the French Revolution. Most sociologists consider Comte to be the creator of
sociology. Comte described sociology as "social engineering" and "positive
science". This new science aimed to benefit society. He sought to discover "social
laws", just as in the natural sciences. However, he later used the word "sociology"
rather than "social physics". He divided sociology into "social static" and "social
dynamic". Social static focuses on the relatively stable social relationships and
structures in every society. Social dynamic focuses on social relationships and
structures in each society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 32).
2) Emily Durkheim (1858-1917)
Sociology as an independent branch of science was founded by Durkheim. He
was heavily influenced by Comte's work. As is well known, Comte argued that
positivist social science should be based on natural science to understand society.
Durkheim sought to give sociology a scientific status. He argued that sociology
 5

does not focus on individual consciousness like psychology, but on "collective

consciousness", which is defined as the common beliefs and feelings that the
average person in society shares (Zencirkiran, 2016: 33).
Durkheim tried to understand the way people shape society in the "Social
Division of Labor". In what ways can reconciliation, which is essential for social
existence, be achieved? In other words, what are the main components that hold
society together? Durkheim tried to find answers to these questions. According to
him, solidarity, which is the basis of social existence, is divided into two types:
mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity (Zencirkiran, 2016: 38).

3) Karl Marx (1818-1883).

The conditions of "wild capitalism" at the time greatly influenced Marx. He
came from the Hegelian philosophical tradition, but he deviated from Hegel's
idealism and took up a materialist philosophy of history. He argued that human
existence is not determined by their consciousness; rather, social existence
determines human consciousness. Marx argued that "natural law" does not cause
the unequal distribution of power, wealth and other resources in society. It is the
result of social forces, especially the exploitation of certain social classes by other
social classes. Marx divided society into two classes: "haves" and "have-nots"
(Zencirkiran, 2016: 41).
Marx was an optimistic optimist about the economy. According to him,
society goes through five stages. According to him, the starting point of history is
primitive socialist/communist society; the second point is slave society; the third
point is feudal society; the fourth point is capitalist society; and the last point is
socialist/communist society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 42)..

4) Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber emphasized that sociology must understand the relationships
between important social elements. "How does religion affect economic change?"
or "How does bureaucracy shape society?" are some examples. Weber answered
these questions through ideal type analysis and historical analysis (Zencirkiran,
2016: 46)..
To understand why a social structure exists, we must know what makes the
structure unique. For example, if bureaucracy is considered a significant social
phenomenon, what distinguishes this type of bureaucracy from other types, such as
the family? To understand this type, Weber constructed ideal types, which are lists
of important and unique characteristics of social phenomena such as bureaucracy.
Turner argues that it is better to use the term "pure type" rather than "ideal type”.
According to Weber, sociology should study society not its values, which are
neutral. He did not suggest a cold and impersonal sociology in this context. He
argued that researchers should avoid bias (Zencirkiran, 2016: 47).
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D. MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES

a. Structural Functional Approach
Social functions and structures are very important in sociology,
according to a conceptual framework called the structural functional approach.
This method sees society as a complex system with various parts that interact
with each other and influence each other to create stability and balance
(Zencirkiran, 2016: 51). According to functionalism, each part of society
performs a specialized function that ensures the system survives. In this context,
structure refers to the relationships, social patterns and institutions that form the
basic framework for social life. The structural functional approach tends to see
society as an organized whole in which individuals and groups play certain roles
in accordance with prevailing values and standards (Zencirkiran, 2016: 47).
This approach emphasizes that society has a social function which can
be understood that every aspect of social function in it has a social structure and
relationship with each other. This approach views society as a living organism
where society has dynamic characteristics that adapt to a changing environment
so that it can maintain its existence. Then society prefers to be in harmony and
dependence on subsystems to obtain balance in their lives. One form of
subsystem that can help them is the existence of institutions that are able to have
an impact on changes in the social system of the community. with the existence
of this sub-system, the community is easier to adapt to environmental changes
and is able to solve the problems they have and be able to obtain balance in their
social system through good institutional leadership. However, it is also
necessary to consider the application of subsystem functions in society, it is
necessary to maintain the functionality of a subsystem. If a social system is
unable to fulfill its proper function, then the function of the social system will
be replaced by a new social system structure.

b. Symbolic Interactionism Approach

In sociology, the symbolic interactionism approach is a theoretical
paradigm that emphasizes how social interactions shape the meaning and
identity of individuals in society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 56). This method centers
on the way people use symbols to interact with each other and how they gain an
understanding of the surrounding world and themselves. Symbolic
interactionism emphasizes that meaning does not exist in objects or events, but
rather is shaped by the process of social interaction. Individuals attribute
meaning to symbols based on their own experiences and interpretations, and this
process creates the basis of social reality.
Self-identity is an important component of the symbolic interactionism
approach; this perspective argues that one's identity is constantly constructed
and reconstructed through social interaction. Symbols such as language,
gestures, and facial expressions play an important role in the formation of one's
identity and the understanding of how they are seen by others. In addition, this
approach emphasizes that context plays an important role in the formation of
meaning. In other words, the meaning of a symbol can change depending on its
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environment (Zencirkiran, 2016: 57). For example, the meaning of a smile can
change depending on the place. Symbolic interactionism also emphasizes the
importance of the socialization process to shape one's behavior and identity.

c. Conflict Approach
The theoretical view known as the conflict approach in sociology
emphasizes the importance of conflict and social inequality as key catalysts for
social change. In this context, conflict does not only include physical abuse or
violence; it also includes conflict caused by inequalities in how people divide
power, resources, and opportunities, The conflict perspective suggests that
societies are not always harmonious; instead, there are often tensions and
conflicts between different groups based on social class, ethnicity, gender, or
various other factors (Zencirkiran, 2016: 55). Figures such as Karl Marx, Max
Weber, and C. Wright Mills observed that conflict is an important part of social
structure and can trigger significant social change, which drives this line of
thinking.
The conflict approach examines inequalities and discrimination that
exist in society related to differences in social class, gender, ethnicity, family,
education, power, prestige and income, etc. by investigating the aspects, causes
and effects of these class differences. According to Karl Marx, the gap between
two different classes in society (the bourgeoisie) can create a system of power
that can have an impact on inequality and discrimination within it. Karl Marx
reviewed that the problem with this class system is that there are areas of
conflict between classes that have a significant effect on the social system of
society.

d. Feminist Approach
The feminist approach to sociology is an analytical framework that
emphasizes the importance of gender in understanding social structure,
inequality, and conflict in society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 58). It seeks to highlight
the role of gender in shaping social patterns, institutions and power relations.
Social feminism attempts to explore how existing gender systems affect the
lived experiences of individuals and groups, and highlights the social injustices
experienced by women and gender minorities. These approaches vary in focus,
including liberal feminism which emphasizes legal and political equality,
radical feminism which highlights the structural roots of gender inequality, and
difference feminism which emphasizes the diverse experiences of women based
on factors such as race, social class, and sexual orientation.
This approach focuses on the inequalities caused by the patriarchal
system in various social dimensions and aspects and tries to solve the problems.
(Zencirkiran, 2016: 59). Gender-based approaches are evolving and starting to
be incorporated into the agenda of social life and play an important role in
upholding women's human rights in all spheres of social life. This approach
tries to examine and criticize policies that lead to gender discrimination
comprehensively through research related to the description of the situation and
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position of women in society and evaluate social systems related to the position
of women. This can broaden the scope of sociology and provide opportunities
for sociology's contribution in eliminating gender concepts that are prone to
discrimination in society.
3. Sociological Imagination
The concept proposed by Charles Wright Mills (1916-1962) has an important
value in reflecting the sociological perspective. It involves the process of evaluating
personal events within a complex social context. This concept directs sociologists in
analyzing events in a social context by considering history and evaluating that
history. For example, when the Corona Virus epidemic spread in 2020 in Turkey,
which caused a negative impact on the economy and increased unemployment due
to the dismissal of highly capable and competent employees. The concept of
sociological imagination requires sociologists to consider unemployment in this
period and set aside personal incompetence in a broad social context.
The application of this concept can be applied in everyday life. For example,
when a person from a different ethnicity is in a situation and position that belongs to
social stratification, causing social discrimination and failure in his/her working
life, or a situation when a person blames himself/herself for a divorce. With these
situations, sociologists can consider the appropriate steps in solving a problem in a
broad social context by considering the impact on the social environment without
having to consider a person's personal incompetence.

4. Sociologist Paradox
Sociology faces important issues regarding power relations when evaluating
social events. This leads to the emergence of a social paradox experienced by
sociologists and causes differences between attitudes and behaviors and events that
occur in the field (Zencirkiran, 2016: 16). There are various causes that illustrate the
differences in sociologists' responses to the same events. First, sociologists as
members of a group with a certain identity can describe an event according to the
perspective of the social context they are in. Secondly, the basic subject of
sociologists which includes global level problems that concern and cause death,
hunger, poverty to peace, gender and socialism. These things cause sociologists to
have difficulty in isolating and adjusting between the conditions of the country
where they live and the country experiencing social problems. In addition,
sociologists also have difficulty in eliminating judgment in their studies.
In the context of state interests, sociologists can become ideological and
political agents for various reasons such as power, status, money, and politics
(Zencirkiran, 2016: 17). Many governments give full support to sociologists to
direct and manipulate people's social behavior. In addition, sociologists can also
become spokespersons in a country's ideological disputes and tensions, but with this
role sociologists often get criticized for being politically involved so that
sociologists have difficulty in obtaining neutrality in analyzing a problem in a
broader social context.
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CHAPTER III
CULTURE
A. DEFINITION OF CULTURE
Zencirkiran (2016: 61) says Culture is everything that a person learns from his
environment with the output results in the form of a set of values, attitudes and habits
that a person acquires during his life as an evaluation material from birth to death.
Culture is born because of the socialization process related to things that are important
for a person to learn during his life. It is related to a valuable thing obtained from
family, friendship, media, education and surrounding institutions. Culture can shape
people's values, attitudes and behavior. However, there are cultural differences in each
person in society through ways of thinking and behaving that are embedded with
concepts such as way of being, equality, honor and morality.
Culture has two dimensions that influence each other, namely:
1. Material Culture: This dimension includes the technology, machinery, buildings,
vehicles or manufactured goods associated with a society's cultural characteristics,
such as clothing preferences, car models and televisions. For example, architectural
perspectives and house styles in Turkey, Japan, America or Nigeria are unique to
the country's culture (Zencirkiran, 2016: 62).
2. Non-material culture: This dimension includes non-material culture such as
mentality, tradition, judgment, belief values, laws and morality. In social science
there are differences related to culture over time. For Asian and African countries,
the concept of culture is used in different contexts of use in the country's
modernization process, especially in science and technology (Zencirkiran, 2016:
62).

Changes between material and non-material culture in society do not occur at

the same frequency and speed. This is because elements of material culture change
faster and can cause a cultural gap in society (Zencirkiran, 2016: 63). It can also
affect non-material culture, for example when the culture shifted from stone axes to
iron axes in the indigenous Yir Yuront people in Australia. The Yir Yuront people
used stone as a commercial tool and as the basis for making stone axes which were
a sign of male superiority. However, stone axes began to be replaced by iron axes
due to increased missionary activities which led to women and children being given
insight into iron axes. This led to the collapse of ideas related to male superiority
and the role of age in society and the shift of Yir Yuront people from stone to
cheaper iron. The loss of these ideas caused people to abandon their religious
beliefs in favor of following the new religious beliefs. The impact is that there is a
shift and disruption of past norms such as the rules of land, property and objects,
and marriage. This proves that technological innovation can cause the collapse of
the social structure in the community.
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B. CULTURAL LAG
This concept was proposed by an American sociologist named Fielfing
Ogburn, who argued that mentality, morality, laws, traditions, etc., which are non-
material cultural elements can change more rapidly and age slowly. In the rapid change
of material culture, the reaction experienced in non-material culture is also called
cultural delay (Zencirkiran, 2016: 64). For example, developments in the field of
fetilization and genetic technology raise moral and legal issues related to surrogate
motherhood and genetically modified organ transplants. The impact of culture can have
a very significant impact on technological development, especially regarding the
concept of surrogacy and organ transplantation. Although the role of these concepts is
very large in society, there are still many countries that prohibit them from being
practiced because there is still a debate regarding surrogacy and organ transplantation.

C. CULTURE SHOCK
This concept is a state of alienation and ignorance regarding actions that are
different from the usual culture (Zencirkiran, 2016: 65). This situation is often
experienced by immigrants who live and work in other countries. For example, Turkish
immigrants who left for Europe in the 1960s did not know the language and culture of
the country they lived in. In the end they chose to carry out habits such as watching
Turkish television, reading Turkish newspapers and often spending time in Turkish
shops. This shows that culture shock can cause someone to prefer socializing with
people who have the same culture

D. CULTURAL FUNCTION
There are several cultural functions according to Fichter (2012), namely:
1. Culture provides a scheme or pattern of life for society. Every person who plays a
role in society must be able to study and analyze their behavior according to their
goals in doing something (Zencirkiran, 2016: 67).
2. Culture unites and gives meaning to values in society. This aims to provide insight
to the community regarding things that must be obeyed and implemented as well as
the meaning and goals of their social life (Zencirkiran, 2016: 68).

E. CULTURAL ELEMENTS
There are several cultural elements, namely:
1. Values
This element shows the ideal standard to be achieved in society and is the
most common element in society. The social weight in values can change over time by
indicating the ideal standards to be achieved in society in one period and can change in
other periods. These values are also related to social norms that exist in society, which
 11

can be determined formally through statutory regulations or traditions inherent in

society, both written and unwritten.
 12

2. Symbol
Language is a system that can provide symbols for everything and is able to
provide meaning both verbally and in writing. Language includes all symbols in
society, including numbers, signs, gestures, and verbal expressions. Language has an
important role in passing down culture from generation to generation and establishing
cultural exchange between generations. Language also guarantees the continuity of
society through language, freedom, independence, justice, morality, honor, etc. and is
able to provide semantic continuity created by concepts in society

3. Tradition
Tradition is a term given to forms of action that have been established and
have been carried out for generations in society. Tradition has a strong influence in
ensuring the continuity of practices that provide functionality in a society in different
contexts. Traditions also reflect systematic thinking that has existed from the past and
has an important function in society. For example, the traditions of wedding ceremonies
and circumcision ceremonies in Türkiye.

4. Sanctions and Punishments

Violations of values, norms and traditions in society will be subject to
sanctions and punishment at different levels. Violations of written regulations are
subject to formal sanctions. Murder, theft, corruption, etc. may be subject to penalties
in accordance with applicable law. Violations of community traditions and norms can
be subject to lighter sanctions and punishments such as ridicule, ostracism, and even
violence.

F. BASIC CONCEPTS OF CULTURE

1. High Culture
This element is prominent in small minority groups which are defined as elite
groups that have special connections and are difficult to access by society (Zencirkiran,
2016:75).

2. Popular Culture
This element is adopted and owned by the majority in society (Zencirkiran,
2016:75).. Zencirkiran (2016:75),. There are several criteria that differentiate high
culture from popular culture, namely:
1) Cost: High culture requires high costs, while popular is still within reach of most
people
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2) Taste: high culture has exclusive taste criteria and characteristics and has high
value.
3) Uniqueness: high cultures have a distinctive level of product uniqueness and are
only produced in small quantities

3. Elements of Material Culture as Elements of High Culture

High culture includes customs and ownership of genre elements, such as
paintings, violins, tables, statues, etc. which has characteristics as an element of
high culture . High culture is not only associated with wealth, but is also associated
with extensive knowledge related to cultural elements of curiosity, sophistication,
taste and mastery of historical developments (Zencirkiran, 2016:77).

4. Counter-Culture
Counter-culture is a group that rejects dominant cultural elements that have
been widely agreed upon and tries to dominate lifestyles based on the cultural
elements they practice. They challenge the lifestyle accepted in society and
highlight different cultural forms (Zencirkiran, 2016:78).

5. Ethnocentrism
It is an action that makes culture the foundation/center and accepts its cultural
elements as something true, superior and absolute as well as assessing and
criticizing so that other cultures must conform to their own cultural standards. This
causes behavior that belittles and demeans cultures that are different from their own
(Zencirkiran, 2016:78).

6. Cultural Relativity
This concept is a perspective that considers the absence of superiority or
inferiority between cultures and states that each culture develops and evaluates
elements within it according to different contexts and backgrounds (Zencirkiran,
2016:78).

7. Multiculturalism
This concept refers to tolerance and coexistence between one culture and other
cultures which have different backgrounds and social contexts within them. This
concept is able to provide broad cultural richness to a country and is able to provide
answers to the risk of conflict between cultural elements. This concept is starting to
be applied in many developed and developing countries with all kinds of
applications (Zencirkiran, 2016:79).
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8. Cultural Change
Culture cannot survive beyond change. For example, the younger generation
differs from their parents in many ways. They do not defend accepted cultural
values as they are; on the contrary, they adopt these values to adapt to the progress
of the times (Zencirkiran, 2016:80). The three main sources of large-scale cultural
change are as follows:
1) Discovery: A discovery is the discovery of new information in a previously
existing field. Finding petroleum somewhere is one example of discovery. On
the other hand, the reformatting of existing information or the creation of new
materials are two examples of discoveries (Zencirkiran, 2016:81).
2) Technological changes and developments: The development of computer and
electronic technology in the 1970s and the existence of the internet today have
caused drastic changes in cultural habits in almost every aspect of life, starting
from work. Machines have played a transformative role in the transition to
industrial society. connection to recreation and education, and building
relationships (Zencirkiran, 2016:81).
3) Changes in the natural environment: For example, scarcity of natural resources,
climate change, or an increase or decrease in population forces people to adapt
(Zencirkiran, 2016:81).

G. GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE

Globalization is a process that can erode local, regional and national
boundaries in the fields of communication, interaction and capital and is able to
increase social inequality and dependency. This has led to increased global
interactions across local, regional and national boundaries (Zencirkiran, 2016:83)..
In the process of Globalization, there are some people who do not want to be
part of a global culture that approaches equality on a global scale reactively. This
also causes increased public interest in local culture. Globalization can also cause
the rise of local cultural elements to reflect new interaction styles. This new style
encourages people to massively commercialize local cultural elements (Zencirkiran,
2016:84)..
Globalization has had a significant impact on cultural development around the
world. One of the main roles of globalization is to spread cultural ideas, values and
practices from one country or region to another more quickly and widely than ever
before. This happens through mass media, information and communication
technology, and increased international mobility (Zencirkiran, 2016: 84).
Globalization allows for more intensive cultural exchange between different
societies, which in turn can result in a process of cultural homogenization or
heterogenization. On the one hand, globalization can lead to cultural convergence
where aspects of cultures from different parts of the world become more uniform or
similar.
In addition, globalization also impacts the process of cultural assimilation and
syncretism where cultural elements from different traditions are combined or
adapted into something new (Zencirkiran, 2016: 84). This occurs when individuals
 15

or groups embrace cultural values, norms or practices from different cultures they
encounter, and integrate them into their daily lives.
 16

CHAPTER IV
SOCIALIZATION
A. SOCIALIZATION
1. Definition of socialization
Socialization is a person's process of learning the culture of the people and
groups they interact with and includes the dynamic interaction processes that humans
experience throughout their lives (Zencirkiran, 2016:87). Socialization plays an
important role sociologically because there are differences of opinion regarding life,
good and bad values, right and wrong, etc. Socialization has a big role in a person's life,
especially in forming attitudes and behavior that will be shown in everyday life.
Socialization can ensure the continuity of culture from generation to generation in the
micro sense and plays an important role in the formation of personality in the micro
sense.

2. Forms of Socialization
There are two forms of socialization found in community life (Zencirkiran, 2016:88),
namely:
1) Primary Socialization: covers early childhood with an emphasis on one's family and
immediate environment.
2) Secondary Socialization: is socialization that occurs through intense interaction
with the external environment through education, friendships, organizations, clubs
and workplaces as children develop into adulthood.

3. Socialization Factors
There are several factors that influence socialization (Zencirkiran, 2016:89), namely:
1) Living Environment: includes the environment where a person lives and the values
applied therein. Dimensions in the living environment such as competition, success
and freedom to express opinions also influence a person's socialization process.
2) Religion: includes the beliefs and beliefs of a person's religion
3) Family: includes parents' lifestyle, social status, and effective professional group
4) Ethnicity: includes ethnicity, race, ethnicity and skin color which can be a minority
or majority in a country. This factor causes differences in treatment and
discrimination.
5) Gender: includes the sex and gender a person has. This factor also determines the
social roles taught according to the needs between genders during the social
process.
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B. IMPORTANT AGENTS FOR SOCIALIZATION

Certain agents are involved in the socialization process in every society.

Family is the most important. The media, school, and circle of friends are additional
intermediaries after the family.

C. SOCIAL ROLE
Social roles are styles of behavior that are expected of someone, such as the
roles of mother, student, academic, writer, employee and citizen (Zencirkiran,
2016:90). Expectations of social roles also vary according to different social statuses.
Social roles have an important value in a person's success in social behavior. For
example, someone who has worked in an organization may act individually and dare to
criticize their manager when they are wrong in good and polite language. Then, when
there are actions that disrupt teamwork, that person will be given sanctions ranging
from isolation to discrimination within the organization (Zencirkiran, 2016:91).
However, there are role conflicts that occur in the socialization process. This is
because a person can take on different roles and lifestyles throughout their life. Apart
from that, differences in a person's status and priorities also cause role conflicts in
society (Zencirkiran, 2016:91).

D. STATUS
This concept refers to a person's position in society and the respect that society
shows to a certain status. Status has a certain role in the socialization process, namely:
when social status changes, the roles and behavioral patterns expected from that status
also change. Socialization teaches people that status is an important part of society;
Apart from that, people are given services according to their social status, this shows
their behavioral style in a certain period (Zencirkiran, 2016:92).

E. STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is a process that lasts throughout a person's life and has different
stages. Zencirkiran (2016:106-108) In general, the phases involved in socialization can
be described as follows:

1. Childhood
Childhood is the period of life that lasts from birth to early adolescence.
Physical, mental, emotional, and social development during this period is very
important. Children begin to form their personalities as they explore the world. At this
point, the components that the child interacts with, such as family, school, and circle of
 18

friends, greatly influence the child's social and personal growth. In addition, the
experiences gained and ways of behaving learned during childhood continue to have an
impact on later life.

2. Adolescence
Adolescence is a transition phase from childhood to adulthood. This period
usually starts at the age of 10-12 years and continues until the age of 18-20 years.
Young people take important steps in the process of forming their identity when
physical, mental, and emotional changes are intense. Adolescence is a time when
behavioral patterns learned as a child are reviewed and prepared for adult roles. During
this stage, teens' thoughts, values, and behavior may change due to factors such as their
friendships, school, family, and social environment. In addition, the experiences
experienced by the younger generation shape their lives in the future.
3. Adulthood
Adulthood is a time when physical and mental maturity has been completed
and a person is accepted as an individual in society. It usually begins in the early 20s
and continues throughout a person's life. During this period, individuals generally
complete their education, get a job, start a family and gain social status in society.
During adulthood, people live their lives aware of their responsibilities. By setting
personal and professional goals, they strive to develop their careers, support their
families, live healthy lives, and strengthen social ties.

4. Old Age
Old age is the last phase in a person's life cycle, usually experienced by people aged 65
years and over. During this period, people experience physical and mental changes, and
they often retire and leave their business life behind. Parents are respected socially, and
parents are often seen as teachers and wise people. As people age, they have the
opportunity to understand themselves and their life experiences, maintain relationships
with their family and community, spend free time, and concentrate on their personal
progress. Additionally, old age comes with a number of problems, such as health
problems, loneliness, and financial problems.
 19

CHAPTER V
SOCIAL GROUPS

A. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL GROUPS

A social group is a social unit consisting of people who come together for a
specific purpose. Social groups consist of people who communicate and interact with
each other with the same goals and interests. Some social groups involve people in a
specific geographic area (Zencirkiran, 2016:113). Status, gender, age, religion,
language, and ethnicity are some of the characteristics that can make social groups
different from each other. Because of the interactions and bonds that exist between their
members, social groups can create a strong sense of social solidarity. Group members
who have the same interests and values can help each other, work together, and achieve
common goals by coming together. However, social groups can also cause conflict and
division among group members (Zencirkiran, 2016:114).

B. FORMS OF SOCIAL GROUPS

There are several forms of social groups in society, including:
1. Main Group
According to Cooley, the most important factor in shaping individuals and
societies is small and close groups, which consist of the regular interactions of people
who have long-term and close relationships (Zencirkiran, 2016:114). Community
relationships in primary groups are long-lasting, informal, and flexible. The community
is very committed to this group. So, in the primary group, people often say we for
example, a couple of people in love often meet and show care for each other. This
group is not numerous and does not have a clear goal. People in groups can show their
feelings.

2. Secondary Group
When two or more people interact impersonally to achieve a specific goal, this
is called a secondary group. Most sociologists call these actions instrumental behavior.
because they relate to each other to achieve certain goals. Significant rules and limited
interactions are available in secondary relationships. Roles determine how community
relationships are formed (Zencirkiran, 2016:114). For example, over the course of a
semester, a lecturer and students may get along quite well. However, this is because of
their role. Secondary groups can be large or small. However, all large groups that do
not allow face-to-face interaction are called secondary groups. More logical and
reasonable social control occurs in secondary groups. Therefore, primary groups and
secondary groups have different levels of life.
 20

3. In-Groups
In-groups are other groups within the group. These groups are smaller
subgroups of the main group and interact and collaborate more with each other
(Zencirkiran, 2016:114). For example, some players on a sports team may form groups
and interact more with each other in practices, games, and non-team events. Members
in these groups are more connected to each other and often have similar interests, goals,
or characteristics. This can increase solidarity and support among group members, but
it can also increase competition against other groups.

4. Out-groups
An outgroup is a group that is different from one's own group. Outgroups have
an identity or unity that is conflicting or different from the identity of the individual or
group, which can cause group members to have negative feelings towards the outgroup
(Zencirkiran, 2016:114). Attitudes towards outgroups are related to self and group
identity as well as the individual's level of identification with their group. Different
groups can face problems when living together due to social issues such as prejudice,
discrimination and stereotypes. However, good interactions between different groups
can also produce good things such as understanding, tolerance and cultural diversity.

5. Reference Group
Reference groups are very important in determining whether someone is
happy or unhappy (Zencirkiran, 2016:118). For example, if a community chooses
people with higher incomes than itself as a reference group, they will be unhappy. In
contrast, if someone working for minimum wage chooses the unemployed as their
reference group, they will be happy.

C. GROUP-INDIVIDUAL INTERACTION: THE INFLUENCE OF GROUPS ON

INDIVIDUALS
Groups have different influences on individuals. Individuals who are in a
group will show different solidarity than when they are alone. There are several group
influences on individuals, namely:

1. Erosion of Individuality
One of the most basic characteristics is that groups form individual solidarity
in accordance with group identity with the aim of fulfilling the group's ambitions and
targets. If there are individuals who act outside the group's goals, then these members
will be punished severely to create fear and obedience within the group and form
integrity within it (Zencirkiran, 2016:120)..
 21

2. Supervision and control

This concept creates pressure on individuals by taking control and applying
various kinds of supervision and control over individuals with the aim of increasing the
integrity, commitment and solidarity of group members (Zencirkiran, 2016:121)..
3. Increase Courage and Risk Taking
Groups give individuals a feeling of having great power, especially social
acceptance in large groups. However, the impact is that individuals can feel "power
poisoning" which causes individuals to act in groups that have a higher risk
(Zencirkiran, 2016:123)..
4. Creating Fear
In a strong group, one can be wary of generally accepted and fearful thoughts
in the group so as not to create a bad image within the group (Zencirkiran, 2016:124).
In addition, the group prevents conflicting thoughts/movements in the name of
discipline within the group.
5. Social Contagion
Groups have a contagious impact on individuals through relationships and
social identity within them. Groups can influence individual behavior and attitudes and
can even influence an individual's emotional attachment to their group (Zencirkiran,
2016:124). This caused mass enthusiasm, excitement and even violence.

D. SOME IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS ABOUT GROUPS

1. Group Norms
The rules and expectations of behavior that are accepted and expected to be
followed by group members. This can help group members adapt and build better
relationships with each other and increase their sense of belonging. Group norms can
arise in any group and can be shaped by cultural, personal, or social factors. Norms
have an important function in maintaining order in the group in accordance with a large
agreement among group members regarding basic norms. Norms can be in written form
or can be in the form of patterns in the form of unwritten rules that are known to all
group members. If group members are unable to fulfill these norms, then those
members will receive heavy sanctions. (Zencirkiran, 2016:130).

2. Group Roles
Group roles are patterns of behavior in which group members have certain
expectations and responsibilities. Each group member assumes a specific role for the
functioning of the group, and this role is determined by the group's norms (Zencirkiran,
2016:131). For example, in a soccer team, goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and
attackers have different roles.
 22

3. Group Leadership
According to management styles, there are two general types of leadership.
1) Authoritarian leadership
In an authoritarian leadership style, a leader maintains strong control and
avoids considering the opinions of other groups when making decisions. This
leadership style focuses on establishing dominance in a group intensively by using
elements of fear, pressure and threats to build this (Zencirkiran, 2016:132). The result
of this leadership style is self-satisfaction and dominance, becoming stronger and
feared by people in the group

2) Democratic Leadership
In a democratic leadership style, the leader encourages group participation in
decision making and allows group members to express themselves freely (Zencirkiran,
2016:132). This leadership style uses a more tolerant approach to failure and focuses on
process and results. This leadership style provides freedom of opinion in the decision-
making process.

4. Discrimination
Discrimination can refer to any behavior that deprives a person of their rights
or opportunities because of their characteristics, such as gender, age, race, religion,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, or physical characteristics. This is due to differences
between one group and another group. In the process of globalization which encourages
society to cross social boundaries and increasingly develops interactions between
countries with various types of differences, society is required to be able to adapt and
coexist with other group identities (Zencirkiran, 2016:133). However, if they are unable
to adapt and coexist, this will cause discrimination to develop in society. Therefore, the
sociological perspective has an important role in increasing public awareness of group
identity and integrity in society.
One of the cruelest and harshest forms of discrimination is open
discrimination. In open discrimination, there is a large imbalance of power between the
party in power who implements the discrimination and the party who receives the
discrimination (Zencirkiran, 2016:133). Perpetrators of discrimination consider
themselves superior so they feel entitled to belittle and view negatively the values of
other groups.
However, there is a form of positive discrimination in the form of behavior in
the form of giving special treatment to minority groups who are more in need of
obtaining certain things (Zencirkiran, 2016:134). One form of positive discrimination is
the provision of quotas for women in political parties and the establishment of anti-
discrimination regulations among working women.
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PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
A. MAIN REFERENCE BOOK
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B. PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF HANDWRITTEN NOTES

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zencirkiran, M. (2016). Sosyoloji (7th Ed.). Dora Yayıncılık.