UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM PUBLICATIONS at- GAR GY OAS GHAZALI’S BOOK OF Counsel for Kings (NASIHAT AL-MULOK) Translated by F.R.C, BAGLEY from the Persian text edited by JALKL HUMa'T ‘and the Bodleian Arabic text edited by H. D. ISAACS swith Introduction, Notes, and Biographical Index LONDON OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK TORONTO 1964 RUTGERS UNIVERSITY tuseaRyOxford University Press, Amen House, London B.C.4 © University of Durham 1964 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To the University of Durham Publications Board, who made possible the publication of this book; to Dr. H. D. Istacs, B.Sc., M.A, M.D., of Manchester, for the use of his thesis; to the Durham Colleges Research Fund; to Mrs, A. M. ‘Thompson for secretarial help; to my wife; to the Rev. Dr. W. Montgomery Watt of Edinburgh University; to Dr. J. A. Boyle of Manchester University; to Professors B. Spuler and W. Lentz of Hamburg University; to the Rev. Dr. Harold Spencer; to Mr. 1. A.C. Foster, Lit of the Durham University School of Oriental Studies; ‘and to the compositors and proof-readers of the Oxford University Press. F.RCB. University of Durham England 1983CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Mirrors for Princes, p. ix. Nasthat al-Mulik: the Persian and Arabic tersions, p. xvi. Internal evidence of authenticity, p. xxiv. “The teachings of Nasihat views on the Caliphate, p. i, PART I ‘The Principles of the Creed, which are Roots of Faith, p. 6. ‘The Branches of the Tree of Faith, p. 12. The Two Springs which water the Tree of Faith; First Spring, p. 31; Second Spring, p. 38. PART It Cuapren 1. On Qualities required in Kings ‘The Account of the Kings (of Persia), pp. 47-53 Cuaprer II. On the Wazirate and the Character of Wazirs Cuaprer III, On the Artof the Pen and the Functions of Seere- (Ciaprer IV. On Magnanimity in Kings (Ciapren V. Citing Aphorisms of the Sages Cuapren VI. On Intelligence and Intelligent Persons (Cuapter VII. On Women and their Good and Bad Points BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 45 106 "3 19 14 49 158 1”INTRODUCTION MIRRORS FOR PRINCES Books of counsel for rulers, or ‘Mirrors for Princes’, form a distinctive and interesting genre of classical Arabic and Persian literature, ‘They show how complete was the synthesis achieved between the Arab-Islamic and old Persian elements which were the main components of medieval Muslim civilization. They impartial use of examples attributed to Arab Caliphs and Si kings, toSafi saints and Persian sages; they islamize Zoroastrian maxims such as ‘religion and empire are brothers’; and they assume rightly or wrongly a substantial identity and continuity between Sisinian and Islamic state institutions. During the carly ‘Abbasid period, emphasis on the Persian contribution to Islamic civilization sometimes represented a shu'ibite or nationalistic tendeney among the Persian Muslims. Such nationalism must have been a factor in the revival of Persian as a literary language; it wasto be expressed in no uncertain terms by Firdawsic. 320/932 {410/1020) in his Shahndmah, In general, however, religious univer- salism prevailed over national particularism; and Persians were foremost among the thinkers who developed the faith of Islam into a world religion, At the same time, Muslims of every nationality and school of thought came to accept the view of Muslim civiliza~ tion as a Perso-Islamic synthesis. ‘Thus, the Spanish Muslim Ibn “Abd Rabbih of Cordoba (d. 329/940) placed a ‘Mirror for Princes’ full of Persian material at the head of his vast anthology of belles~ lettres, al-‘Iqd al-Farid;! and the jurist al-Miwardi of Bagrah (364/975-450/1058), author of al-Abkam al-Sultaniyah,* the 1 84, by Abmad Amin etal, 7 vols, Caio, 1367/1948-1372/19535 Book 1, Kita al-fa lah fT Sulta ae by E. Fagnan, Ler status gowvernementaus, Algiers, rors, Among other ‘works sid to have been writen by Mfward, Fagnan mention (Introduction, P. wid: Neshatul-Mulah, Pars, Bibiothtque Nationale, MSS. Arabes, No.2447, 1) Sida ale Mamlakak; Qin or Qussin) al-Wisarah; M'vfo a-Fagat ‘mora views); Adab al-dumyd edn, printed at Constantinople 1299/1881 land at Csiro, 1305/1887 and 1315/1897; al-Amthdl wa-bikam (aphorisms), siden, mantscript 344, catalogue vol. p. 196; and Tatil al-magar toa task ‘etezafer, Te last-named work wa studied by Gustav Richter (se his Studien zurx Introduction greatest theoretical exposition of Islamic constitutional law, also wrote books of advice for rulers which have not yet been fully studied by modern scholars, but which appear to resemble others of their kind, The classical ‘Mirrors’, with their Perso-Islamic out- look, continued to be copied, and also imitated and translated, during the Mamlak and Ottoman periods, and must have been read by Sultans and officials of those empires and have influenced their thought and action, Materials found in ‘Mirrors’ also passed into popular folklore; and having been used along with Sift materials by Sadi in his Bastan and Gulistan, they are still familiar to all who read or quote from those immortal works. Not only the content, but also the form, of the ‘Mirrors’ reflect the convergence of Persian and Arab heritages and tastes. Sisinian court literature must have consisted very largely of precepts or generalizations exemplified by aphorisms and anecdotes. The ‘Traditions of Istam (Hadith) are of similar character, arranged either according to source (musnad), i.e. under the name of a transmitter, or in the more widely used compilations according to subject (musannaf), ie. in the form of rulings attested by sayings ‘or actions ascribed to Muhammad or his Companions. Analogous forms are found in the literature concerning Safi (mystic) saints; while elegant prose literature, adab, also often took the form of ‘generalizations illustrated by anecdotes, aphorisms or verses. Knowledge of Sisinian literature first became available to ‘Muslims, over a century after the Arab conquest of ‘Iriq and Irn, through the Arabic translations made by Ibn al-Mugatfa'(c. 106) '724-139]757), who also wrote the first original Arabic works of adab and advice for rulers. More will be said later in this Introduction about his achievements and about the sources of the Sisinian and other materials found in the ‘Mirrors’. Tbn al-Mugaffa"s purpose, and indeed the purpose of many of the Pahlavi writings which he translated, appears to have been partly to convey ethical teachings, partly to advise on practical expediency and etiquette, and partly perhaps mainly—to give pleasure through literary elegance and Geschichte der alteren arabischon Fartensiegel, Leipzig, 1932, pp- 69-70) in 12 manuscript at Gotha entitled Tashil al-nazar wa tal l-bagar (catalogue Perth No. 1872—probably now stolen by the Russians). Richter found. this to be a non-thetorcal ‘Mirror’ concerned mainly with doctrifaire and Islamic ethics, but containing s few sayings attributed to Andshirvin, Parviz sand unnamed sages as well as to ‘ulama’, " See below, pp. lie-b Introduction xi wit.) The same mixture of motives is apparent in subsequent adab literature, whether the subject be advice for rulers or other favourite themes such as friends, ascetics, wasirs, secretaries, horses, women, ‘or moral qualities and their antitheses. The resultant literary pro- ducts are sometimes edifying and often witty; but the confusion between ethico-religious and practical criteria, and the quest for rhetorical effect, impede rational consideration of subject-matter in such works. ‘Mirrors for Princes’ do not venture upon systematic treatment of the problems of government and of state and society. Such treatment was indeed attempted by Ab Yusuf (d. 182/798),* ‘Miawardi, and other lawyers, whose approach is strictly rational within the limits of their doctrinal postulates, and by Farabi (4. 339/950) and subsequent philosophers, who attempted to reconeile Platonic theories with Islamic concepts. Authors of ‘Mirrors’, however, keep clear of both constitutional law and political theory, and simply take for granted the existence of an Islamic state in whatever form they themselves knew it. ‘Along with common features, different ‘Mirrors’ show con- siderable variety of emphasis and subject-matter, having been “written by men of different backgrounds. The Kitab al-Taj, written sometime between 232/847 and 247/861 and falsely attributed to al-Jahiz, is a manual of etiquette containing also political and ‘ethical counsels; addressed to both rulers and courtiers, it holds up ‘Sisinian practices as models, but also quotes examples of Muslim Caliphs. Ibn Qutaybah (213/828-275/889) wrote primarily as a ‘man of letters in the treatise on rulership (Kitab al-Sulfan) which forms the first book of his compilation of adab, ‘Uyiin al- Akhbar; 1 Thievident nhs Arabic veri of Kalla wa Dinah text 'Azs, Coes Cacao” Bea est French by Aided Mia, Pec tom i Ria a . Pagan, Le re de Vip fons, Nii agua eae te pre hs wor wh wt or Haron seach, Ab oF Cnie open v Gol fr enforeng namie and ‘mantundg jn goverment ; "nig meh ino hn. J Ree Pet Nomi Za Ph, Cato, oga3}igngs Ch, Pella Pai Tos Prt Fae en ay ae he Are eof te war, whic i rather Fe ot tiene ty se, rye prey fn the astely Se a oer ts wks of Ie ath stbuton fo hn mat be fab: Sa ay age Amit Fath fon Kin, mal the Pine ofthe Bile of Teatah orga, he wn were and four of he Cap react erred wishin is aor Calo, ssalonseawttoe.xii Introduction and Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih did the same in the first book of his al-"Iqd al-Farid, which contains very similar materials, perhaps drawn from common sources to which both Tbn Qutaybah and he had access. In the Kitab Baghdad of Abi’l-Fadl Abmad ibn Abi ‘Tahir ‘Tayfir comes the letter which ‘Tahir Dh0’I-Yaminayn (The Ambidextrous’, d. 207/822), then viceroy of Khurisin, sent to his son ‘Abd Allah on the latter's appointment by the Caliph al- Ma'min to the governorship of Diyar Rabf'ah in Northern Meso- potamia.' Tahir advises ‘Abd Allah how to rule as a pious Muslim governor, and although some of his counsels are of old Persian origin, he regards them as Islamic precepts and does not ascribe them to Sisinid kings or their sages. Besides these, numerous other ‘Mirrors’, of which some have survived, were written in Arabic,* mostly, it seems, by authors * In book VI ofthe Kitab Baghdad, which has been ed and tr. by H. Kelle, 2 vols, Leipzig, 1008; cf. Richter, op cit, pp. f0-81. * Richter (op. ct) mentions: al Tir al-mansabik ft tadbir a-ak by ‘AI ibn sl-Ahvisi, Caio, 1900. This isnot named in Brockelmann’s list (G.4.L., Suppl 9.720) of the works of Ab “All allasan .al-Awic, 2 philologst end Gutiie scholar, d. 66/1055. Among them Brocklaann includes « Kitab al- Para id wa'- Qaldid; Ghazal quotea from a work of that name (p. 99 below) land attributes it to Abs'l-Hasanal-Ahwist According tothe Hadig a-Si of Rashid al-Din Wigwat, cited by Prot Huma, this wan AbA'-Hasen Muhammad -Ahvwi, «contemporary of Tha'libi (4. 429/1038), the author of Yatimat ale ahr. It may well be that all these variant names Fepresent one author who originated from Ahwaz. ‘Siraj eb-mad by Tb. Abi Rendageh s1-Turtaht (4s1[s059-s20/1126 or 525 1131), « native of ‘Tortos in Spsin who migrated to Egypt. Besides Pesan Inateral, the work contains sayings of an Indian sage Shida, which have been shown to come through Persia) from a Sanskrit book of wisdom called Rajanit ‘compiled by an author named Canakya. (Richer, op.cit, p92) Ibn Abt Randa ‘gah was an opponent of Ghazal and wrote his Sia al-Mulukin the hope of out- shining Ghazals Nopat af Mulsh Brockslmann, G.A:L. Suppl. np. 829 5), ‘Subodn al-Matat by bn Zafar (d, s6s/1160 oF 68/1272), a Sicitian wt migrated to Mecca; text, Tunis 1279/1863; te. by M. Amari, Confort Polit Florence, 1862. ‘This contains not only Persian materials; but also animal stories of Indian origin, some but not all from Kalilah tsa Dinah. Stories are included within stores a in the Arabian Night, snd this fashion iv also su to be Indian but probably received through Peri). (Richter, op. ei, pp. 91-933, Brockelmann, G-d-L. 2, pp. 351-2) ‘Kitabal-Tadhirah of bn Hamelin of Baghdta (49s1101-362111645,« philo- logical and historical anthology cntsning "Mirror (Brockelmann, G-.L.1, pp. 380-1). "Alo to be mentioned are: Adib l-Furs wat Arab by Yon Miskawayh (4, 421/t030), the historian and Introduction whose approach was wholly literary; and items which recur in “Mirrors are also found in compilations of adab such as the Kitab al-Mahisin wa'l-Masawi of Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Bayhaqi (early fourth/tenth cent.)," as well as in historical works. Better known and much more interesting are the ‘Mirrors? written in Persian during the period of Saljiq domination:* namely the Qabisnamah composed in 375/1082 by Kay Ka'ts ibn Iska dar} the Siyasatnamah of Nizam al-Mulk (408/1018-485/1092); and the Kitab Nasihat al-Mulik of Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali(450/1058/9-505/1111). ‘The Qabisnamah is a book of counsel addressed by the Ziyarid prince of Tabaristin to his son and heir Gilanshah. Proud of his, illustrious ancestry, but impecunious and not very secure on his throne as a vassal of the Saljiqs, Kay Ka'ts was a realist; he was far from sure that his son would be able to retain the throne, and indeed Gilinshah did not reign long before the Saljiq Sultan Malikstah deposed him and put an end to the dynasty. Besides giving advice on statecraft, war, etiquette, domestic life, and sport, Kay Ka’ts tells his son how to practise other professions ), merchant, doctor of medicine, astrologer, poet, musician, courtier, secretary, farmer, craftsman, condottiere or darvish. No ‘other work gives so vivid a picture of life as it was lived in the hey- day of medieval Islamic civilization. Interspersed through the book are sayings and anecdotes, mostly of Muslim but partly of scholar of Greek philosophy, author of Tajdribal-Umam and Tahdhibal-Akhldg (Gehich incorporates some of Aristotle's ethics). See p. lx below. ‘A lost Mirror’ entiledal-Kita al- Mula, or Sirat al Muli, by AbO Mango "Abd al-Malik al-Tha'alibl(350/961~429/1038), author of the well-known collee= tion of poems and lives of poets entitled Yathmat al-Dabr (Brockelmann, “A.L-i,p. 286, and Suppl. 18, p. $03) "Bd. F Schally, Giessen, 1908; Indes und Stellemnachwrte by O. Rescher, Stuttgart, 2 An earlier ‘Mirco’ in Persian has survived from the Simanid or Ghaznavid period. This is the Adab al-Saltanah waT-Wisdrah text in C. Schefer, Chretto- mathie Pozane, Paris, 1883, pp. 10-28 (Richter, op. ct, p. 87, and W. Geiger and E. Kthn, Grundriss dr iranitchen Phiologie, Strasbourg, 1896-1904, voli, e347). # TRext ed. R. Levy, London, 19§t (Gibb Memorial Series, N.., xvii). Tr. F. Diez, Berlin, 1811; A. Querry, Pars, 1886; R. Levy, London, 1951. ' Texted. Ch. Scheer, Pars, 1891; simile text, ed M. Modarresi Chahar- chi, ‘Tehran, 1334/1956; a variant text, ed. Sayyid “Abd al-Rabim Khalkhali, ‘Tehran, 1310/1931. Tr. Ch. Schefer, Paris, 18925 H. D: KE, Schabinger Freiherr von Schomingen, FreiburgiMusixiv Introduction Sisinian origin, and verses of the author's own composition, He Fecommends strict observance of Islam (except as regards wine. drinking) and upholds lofty ethical principles, always bearing in mind the limitations imposed by need and expediency. ‘In all your deeds and words’, he says, ‘let your generosity be as large as your ‘means will permit, ‘The Siyasatndmak is equally realistic and valuable as a historical document, even though the bulk of the text consists of Muslim and Sisinian anecdotes and sayings. Nizim al-Mulk, the illustrious soasir of the Saljags, had had quarter of a century's experience of ‘office when he composed or directed the composition of the work in response to a demand by Malikshih for a report on the short= comings of the Saljaiq empite.t ‘The book consists of his sugges tions for reform, with or without anecdotes and aphorisms to illustrate them. Some of these suggestions follow the line of tradi tional maxims, but others are more specific and detailed. Nizam al-Mulk complains of dishonesty and extortion by tax-collectors, gadis (judges), and military holders of estates granted by the Sulfiin in fief. In order to detect such abuses, and also in order to detect heresy, he calls for the re-establishment of a state intelli- gence service? and for the regular holding of royal audiences; both Were traditional Sisinian and Muslim practices, but the Sultan Alp Arslin had renounced the former on the ground that spying was unchivalrous, and the latter had evidently fallen into neglect, Nizim al-Mulk also cites the example of the Saffirid king Ya'qab ‘ibn Layth (4. 265/879) as a warning against defiance of ‘Abbasid Caliphal suzerainty, which was Malikshih’s intention at that time. He has much to say about army organization and recommends traditional practices, also apparently neglected by the Saljaiq régime, such as employing troops of many nations and taking hostages from recently subdued peoples. The last chapters of the book appear to have been written at a later date, probably not long before Nizim al-Mulk’s death. Here he deplores the practices of making plural appointments and of employing heretics and non- ae Soe fie ct pet en rie Tae mrt a tbo fe Senna ic osm TREAD ww en ofa oe Berapocne prac, and ed,, art. Barid.’ po ean Introduction xv ‘Muslims at a time when there was unemployment among the educated classes, and complains of excessive granting and con- sequent cheapening of titles and of interference in state affairs by women (no doubt with Malikshah’s ambitious wife ‘Turkin Khitan in mind). Among these chapters are five on the subject of heretics, which may be later interpolations. One of these recounts the careerand death of Mazdak, the arch-heretic of Sisinian times, in a tendentious but vivid version thought to derive ultimately from a lost romance which was translated into Arabic from Pabla by Ibn al-Mugaffa’;? there are also accounts of the Khurramites, Qarmatians, and other heretical rebels of ‘Abbasid times. All are seen as forerunners of the contemporary Batinites, ic, Isma'iites— by the hand of one of whose assassins Nizam al-Mulk was to meet his death. Sociologically, even if not doctrinally, there may well have been some truth in this identification. The Siyasatnamah shows thet the aims of Nizim al-Mulk’s statesmanship were to promote justice, orthodox religion, and the stability and prosperity of the empire; he regards these aims as altogether mutually com- patible, but does not conceal his fear that the ‘evil eye” may have fallen on the Saljtiq régime and that its days may be numbered. Different in character and purpose is the book of counsel for kings of al-Ghazali,> by general consent the most important religious thinker of medieval Islam. The work consists of two parts, of which the first is theological, setting forth and explaining, as do no other books of this kind, what are the beliefs which a pious Muslim ruler ought to hold and the religious principles on which hhe ought to act. The second part contains a ‘Mirror for Princes’, with further chapters on wazirs, secretaries, magnanimity in kings, aphorisms of the sages, intelligence, and women. The con- tent of the second part is predominantly ethical and often reflects * De. J-A, Boyle ha given the infomation that BN, Zakboder, the Ri trina ofthe Stata (Mone, 94) cones thee cepts ove Ben need by Muara Maghtb, copy and foal ean ae en abone "EX, Guaktonon, on sus et Sanit, Copenhagen, 1944, pp 68 and 43¢-8: ‘Thm ws so averse taint in Arie by Aa a Sb sol ap he ‘spelling ‘Ghazalt’ is used following Montgomery Watt, Bouyges, Bous- aut Goldner but sc R.A: Nihon, Liteon heey 99 I ivand Hrcklman, G-4.Z. 1.410. De. J A Boyle sae tha in the tah of Pas al-Din Ate (Gafts3) she name cco twice (el. Rat, org, 17 snd that in both conte hemes eqs" ome bxvi Introduction the SUfi attitude to life of which Ghazalt was such an eloquent exponent; but there are also passages of purely practical interest, and passages whose main point appears to be their literary effect. In form the work follows accustomed lines, with precepts enun- ciated by Ghazali and exemplifying anecdotes and aphorisms. ‘No less than other writers of ‘Mirrors’, the theologian Ghazal views Muslim civilization as a Perso-Istamic synthesis. In Nasihat al- ‘Mulik he has brought together a treasure-store of Sisinian and ‘Muslim stories and sayings, many of which are not found in earlier ‘Mirrors’. It is unfortunate that this great thinker, who was also profound scholar of philosophy and highly trained lawyer, should have said nothing here about the nature of the Islamic state or the role of the Caliphate or the Batinite menace; he had, how- ever, written on the two latter subjects in an earlier work (which will be discussed later in this Introduction), and 2s already men- tioned it was not customary to bring law or philosophy into ‘Mirrors for Princes’. Nasihat al-Mulik is nevertheless a work of great interest and value, as an exposition of Perso-Islamic beliefs and ethical concepts, and as a compendium of medieval folklore. Both the Qabisndmah and the Siydsainamah have been trans- lated into English, French, and German. It is hoped that despite shortcomings the present attempt to translate Nasihat al-Mulik may be of service. NASIHAT AL-MULOK: THE PERSIAN AND ARABIC VERSIONS Leading modern scholars have shown that numerous writings attributed to Ghazal are spurious, but have not denied that Nasihat