Introduction to Insecticide Resistance

Compiled by Dr. Wayne Buhler, PhD

Colorado potato beetle. By Scott Bauer, USDA ARS

Insecticides are organized into classes—organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids,

neonicotinoids, etc.— that share a common chemical structure and mode of action (MOA).
MOA is the specific process by which an insecticide kills an insect, or inhibits its growth. The
target site of action is the exact location of inhibition, such as interfering with the activity of
an enzyme within a metabolic pathway. MOA and target site of action are often used
interchangeably in practice and are combined as MOA in this learning module.
Genetics and intensive application of insecticides are two factors of several responsible for
the development of insecticide resistance. Insects with genes that confer resistance to a
particular insecticide or class of insecticides survive treatment and are thereby “selected” to
pass on this resistance to later generations. For a complete description of the selection
process, see Understanding Resistance. Among all the different categories of pests, insects
are known to exhibit resistance at alarming rates. Worldwide, more than 500 species of
insects and related arthropods are resistant to insecticides. To search a registry of resistant
insect pests, log onto the Arthropod Pesticide Resistance Database.
Resistance may develop to only a single insecticide. However, it is more common for insects
that exhibit resistance to one insecticide to be resistant (or develop resistance more rapidly)
to other insecticides with the same MOA. A classic example is the house fly. Populations of
this insect that became resistant to DDT in the 1950s, also exhibited resistance, with no
previous exposure, to pyrethroid insecticides used decades later. DDT and pyrethroids have
the same MOA. This phenomenon is known as cross-resistance. A closely related
phenomenon, multiple resistance, occurs in insect populations that resist two or more
insecticide classes with unlike modes of action. Insects develop this type of resistance by
expressing multiple resistance mechanisms. This can happen if one insecticide is used until
insects display resistance and then another is used and the insect population becomes
resistant to that one, and so on. Localized populations of Colorado potato beetle are notorious
for multiple resistance to more than 50 insecticides with various modes of action. Multiple
resistance is less common than cross-resistance but is potentially a greater concern because
it drastically reduces the number of insecticides that can be used to control the insect in
question.
In contrast to resistance, insecticide tolerance is a natural tendency and is not a result of
selection pressure. Mature caterpillars are more tolerant to many insecticides than younger
ones of the same species due to differences in body size, exoskeleton thickness, and the
ability to metabolize a poison. These differences are identified as tolerance or natural
resistance rather than true insecticide resistance.
Part of the content of this module was adapted from “Insecticide Resistance: Causes and
Action.” A publication developed by the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) in
cooperation with the Southern Region Integrated Pest Management Center.
Insecticide resistance is described in detail by breaking the topic into the sections listed
below. All content has been expertly reviewed by Dr. Caydee Savinelli, Syngenta, and Steve
Toth, Center for Integrated Pest Management. Both are technical/science experts within
IRAC.

Insecticide Resistance Mechanisms

There are several ways that insect populations can become resistant to insecticides, and
pests may exhibit more than one of these mechanisms at the same time.

Insect Cell

Metabolic resistance. Resistant insects may detoxify or destroy the toxin faster than
susceptible insects, or prevent the toxin from reaching target sites by binding it to proteins in
their bodies. Metabolic resistance is the most common mechanism and often presents the
greatest challenge. Resistant insects may possess higher levels or more efficient forms of
the enzyme(s) that break down insecticides to nontoxic compounds.
Altered target-site resistance. The site where the toxin usually binds in the insect becomes
modified to reduce the insecticide’s effects
 i.

ii.

iii.

Behavioral resistance. Resistant insects may avoid the toxin by a change from their normal
activity. Insects may simply stop feeding or move to the underside of a sprayed leaf. Some
malaria-transmitting mosquitoes in Africa developed a preference for resting outside that
prevented them from coming in contact with pesticides sprayed on interior walls.

Penetration resistance. Resistant insects may absorb the toxin more slowly than
susceptible insects. Penetration resistance occurs when the insect’s outer cuticle develops
barriers that can slow the absorption of the chemicals into their bodies. This mechanism is
frequently present along with other types.

Raised Resistance Risks

The repeated use of virtually any insecticide is capable of selecting for resistance in insects.
With the introduction of every new insecticide class, cases of resistance surfaced within two
to 20 years. The speed at which a species develops resistance to an insecticide depends on
many factors. However, history clearly shows that the potential for resistance to develop and
spread is heightened under the following conditions:

• The insecticide is used in enclosed areas such as greenhouses where there is little or
no immigration of susceptible insects.
• The insects have multiple generations per year and many offspring per generation.
This effect can be compounded with insects that reproduce asexually, such as aphids.
• The insects are highly susceptible to the insecticide. If a species is highly susceptible,
only resistant insects survive the treatment and reproduce.
• The insect population has a high initial frequency of the genes conferring resistance.
•

When insecticides are used under these conditions, it is imperative to treat alternate
generations of pests with pesticides that have different modes of action or a non-chemical
tactic.
 Take Steps to Avoid Insecticide Resistance

Monitoring for aphids

The more frequently insecticides with the same MOA are used, the more likely resistance will
occur. Once resistant insects have been detected, curbing the spread of resistance is
exceedingly difficult. The best practice is to reduce the chance of resistance developing in
the first place.
The following integrated pest management (IPM) and pesticide management tactics will help
delay the onset of insecticide resistance:
1. Monitor pests — Use research-based sampling procedures to determine if pesticides
are necessary (based on action/economic thresholds) and the best application timing
(when pests are most susceptible). Consult your county Extension Educator or crop
advisor about economic thresholds for the insect in question. After treatment, continue
monitoring to assess pest populations and their control

2. Employ appropriate control measures —

Effective IPM-based programs will include insecticides, cultural practices, biological
control (predators and parasites), mechanical control, and sanitation. A healthy plant
or crop is often less susceptible to insect attack. (see the Integrated Pest
Management section)
3. Select and use insecticides wisely —
o If repeated applications of pesticides are necessary, alternate insecticides with
different modes of action against the pest so that no more than two consecutive
applications are made with the same MOA. The insecticides used in a rotation
or tank mix (see below) must be active against the target pest. For help in
 identifying classes and insecticide mode of action, see Spraying by the
Numbers.
o For some cropping systems, insecticide applications are often arranged into
mode-of-action spray windows or blocks that are defined by the stage of crop
development and the biology of the target pest(s). Several sprays of a
compound may be possible within each spray window but it is generally
essential to ensure that successive generations of the pest are not treated with
insecticides from the same MOA group. Consult local expertise with regard to
spray windows and timings.
o Follow label directions for the proper application method and rate. Using
reduced application rates favors the survival of the stronger individuals in the
pest population. The use of lower rates where possible is a good practice, but
it is not a scientifically proven resistance management technique.
o Minimize the use of long-residual insecticides. When persistent pesticides must
be used, consider where they can be used in a rotation scheme to provide the
control needed and with a minimum length of exposure. Select insecticides that
are least damaging to populations of natural enemies.
o When feasible, spot treat (e.g., field edges or other hot spots) or leave
unsprayed areas within treated fields or adjacent “refuge” fields. The pesticide-
susceptible individuals in the untreated area will interbreed with resistant ones
and dilute the resistance genes in the population.
o Keep good records of insecticide use to aid in planning for future years. Note
the insect species that were present in the field, which insecticides were
applied and where, and the level of control that was achieved. Record the rate,
timing, and the number of insecticide applications made.

Tank-Mix:
Applying two or more pesticides with different modes of action in a tank-mix or pre-pack may
delay the onset of, or mitigate, existing pest resistance. Tank-mixing allows for adjusting of
the ratio of pesticides to fit local pest and environmental conditions, while premixes are
formulated by the manufacturer. The different pesticides in the mixture must be active against
the target pest so that insects with resistance to one mode of action are controlled by
a pesticide partner with a different mode of action. Theoretically, repeated use of any tank-
mix or pre-pack combination may give rise to insecticide resistance, if resistance mechanisms
to each insecticide in the mix arise together but the probability is very low.

What Can You Do About Resistant Insects?

If insecticide resistance is confirmed by diagnostic testing or by eliminating other potential
reasons for pesticide failure (see Is Resistance to Blame), manage insecticide resistance with
the approaches listed below:
 • Immediately stop using the insecticide in question and other insecticides with the same
mode of action.
• Manage insect pests as outlined in, Take Steps to Avoid Insecticide
Resistance. Adhering to these resistance avoidance principles will help prevent
resistance from recurring and prove beneficial in managing resistance in the long term.
• Use preventive control, as appropriate, for pests that are known to be resistant.
• Seek advice from your local county Extension Educator, Land-grant university insect
management specialist, or log onto the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee
website at: http://www.irac-online.org/ for assistance with the long term planning of
insect control in subsequent crops

Reversal of resistance can occur in some pest populations by allowing time between
applications of a class of pesticide to permit resistant populations to become diluted by
pesticide-susceptible individuals. However, no one can predict if or when resistant pests will
change back to a susceptible population.