⚙️Function:

. GONADS . - produce ova (eggs; singular ovum)

reproductive or sex organs, specifically the in a regular cycle determined by
ovaries and testes hormonal secretions. (release)

★ OVARY Functions of ovarian hormones (estrogen &

📍near kidneys, anchored by fallopian progesterone) and their secretions are tied
tubes to uterus. to secretion of FSH and LH from anterior
pituitary gland.
📍Development: intermediate mesoderm.
Ovaries migrate somewhat caudally, retain . Hormones of Females .
position near kidneys. 1. Estrogen – stimulates development
of female sex organs and sexual
"Innervation" refers to the nervous system's supply to a particular
characteristics.
organ or tissue, enabling it to function properly and respond to
various stimuli. 2. Progesterone — prepares the

In the case of the ovary, it receives innervation(supply) from both

uterus for pregnancy and supports
the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic gestation.

📍Innervation:
nervous system.
Progesterone ensures that the endometrium
remains intact and does not shed, which could
- sympathetic – similar to result in the loss of the embryo.
hindgut, level T12, follows least
3. PROGESTERONE + ESTROGENS –
splanchnic nerve;
regulate menstrual cycle; maintain
- parasympathetic – sacral
pregnancy in presence of
outflow.
Sympathetic controls the body's "fight or flight" response, EXCITE.
developing embryo or fetus.
Parasympathetic — body's "rest and digest" functions. CALM. 4. Testosterone - enhances libido.
Involuntary bodily functions, including digestion, urination, and
sexual arousal. The sacral outflow specifically plays a role in
controlling these functions in the pelvic region.

📍Arterial Supply:
- ovarian artery “oxygenated-blood”
- branch of abdominal aorta. “blood”

📍Venous Drainage: “deoxy-blood away”

- ovarian vein, dump into inferior vena
cava.
 ★ TESTES
💦 in postnatal ales, in scrotal sac,
(scrotum) connected to inner workings of
body by spermatic cord.
💦Development:
- from intermediate mesoderm.
kidney degenerates, a ligament called the
GUBERNACULUM descends on each side
of the abdomen from the inferior pole of
gonad.
Hormonal signals, particularly testosterone, trigger
the descent of the testes from their initial position
near the kidneys down into the scrotum. The
gubernaculum guides this descent, pulling the testes
through the inguinal canal and into the scrotum.
Gubernaculum passes obliquely (indirectly)
through developing anterior abdominal
wall at site of future inguinal canal and
attaches at internal surface of labioscrotal
swelling (future position of scrotum in
males or labium majorum in females).
Gubernaculum is thought to guide descent
of testes into scrotum, and ultimately
anchors testis to scrotal wall.
⚙️Function:
- Responsible for sperm production
and synthesis of male sex
hormones.
💦Innervation:
- sympathetic – similar to hindgut,
level T12, follows least splanchnic
nerve, hook a ride down spermatic
cord via testicular blood vessels;
- parasympathetic – sacral outflow.
Sympathetic EXCITE. ejac.
Parasympathetic —. CALM. Erect
💦Arterial Supply:
- testicular artery.
- Branches off of abdominal aorta,
however developmental proximity
to kidney means they sometimes
branch off of renal artery.
Arteries follow the developmental track of testes,
and can thus be very long.
💦Venous Drainage:
- testicular vein, dump into inferior
vena cava.
. Hormones of Males .
1. TESTOSTERONE – stimulate
development of male sex organs,
secondary sexual characteristics,
and behavioral features.
produced by the Leydig cells in the testes
Functions of testosterone and its secretion
is tied to secretion of LH from anterior
pituitary gland.
. SPERM AND SPERM PRODUCTION
🛑Seminiferous tubules
- Each testis contains close to 1000
- long, coiled, tubular structures
- carry out the function of
spermatogenesis (sperm
production).
Cells in the seminiferous tubules, called the
primary spermatocytes, divide by meiosis
to produce sperm.
. SPERM AND SPERM PRODUCTION .
Between seminiferous tubules are clusters
of endocrine cells
. - LEYDIG CELLS or INTERSTITIAL
ENDOCRINOCYTES.
These cells SECRETE male sex hormones –
ANDROGENS, the most important of which
is TESTOSTERONE.
. SPERM STRUCTURE .
● Sperm cells are amongst the
smallest in the body (~1/20 mm).
● Simple construction: head and tail.

– that produce thousands of sperm each

second in healthy males.

The inner lining of each tubule is lined with germinal

tissue – germinal tissue includes two kinds of cells:
● SPERMATOGENIC CELLS – through
meiosis, these cells produce
haploid sperm cells. All four
resulting cells are viable sperm
cells.
● SUSTENTACULAR CELLS – sustain
the spermatogenic cells. They also
secrete lubricating fluid to aid
outward movement of sperm as
they exit testis via seminiferous
tubules and eventually epididymis.
Tail is a flagellum – whipping motion
provides motility.
BASE OF TAIL contains a coiled
mitochondrion to provide power for
movement.
HEAD contains a nucleus and an organelle
called an ACROSOME.
Acrosome contains digestive enzymes that
helps sperm to penetrate egg (if present).
. EPIDIDYMIS
Seminiferous tubules merge into a larger
set of tubules called RETE TESTIS.
Rete testis ultimately drains into larger
tubules called 🐥 efferent ducts 🐥, which
in turn drain into EPIDIDYMIS.
● Epididymis includes HEAD, BODY,
and TAIL.
Tail = DUCTUS DEFERENS.
● Sperm are stored at the distal end
of the old mesonephric duct...at the
distal end of the ductus deferens.
● This distal end bit that attaches to
the testis is called the EPIDIDYMIS.
DUCTUS DEFERENS passes up spermatic
cord, and into body through inguinal canal.
Inside body, right and left ductus deferens
pass cranially over ureters, then loops
dorsal to them behind the urinary bladder.
As each duct passes behind (dorsal to)
bladder, it has appended to it a gland
called the SEMINAL VESICLE.
. Just prior to attachment of the seminal
vesicle, the ductus enlarges into an
AMPULLA.
● The ampulla is the position of
sperm storage prior to ejaculation.
. SEMINAL VESICLE .
● Plastered up against the dorsal side
of urinary bladder.
● Exocrine glands -- provide
secretions that make up most of
seminal fluid.
Fluid lubricates the path of exiting sperm.
Fluid is energy-rich (sugar rich) , providing
food for sperm.
● Secretions slightly alkaline – helps
to neutralize the slightly acidic
environment of vagina.
● Once beyond the seminal vesicle,
the ductus is referred to as the
ejaculatory duct.

. PROSTATE GLANDS
Ejaculatory ducts come together to joint
the urethra within the mass of the prostate
gland.
- Prostate is a single, midline gland
just inferior to urinary bladder.
- Prostate is a mass of connective
tissue, glandular tissue, and smooth
muscle.
Prostate secretions:
- Fructose
- PROSTAGLANDINS – promote
uterine contractions to help
facilitate sperm movement up
uterus into fallopian tubes.
. BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS
● Pair of glands at base of prostate.
Secretions:
- Alkaline pH.
- Lubricant for glans of penis.
ERECTION
● A PARASYMPATHETIC FUNCTION!!
(A sympathetic reaction doesn’t
allow direction of blood to
“nonessential” organs.)
● Parasympathetic function stimulates
dilation of penile blood vessels –
causing engorgement of penis with
blood. (A hydrostatic skeleton)
.
Control of Erection (2)
● Conscious thoughts (cerebral
cortex) stimulate the erection center
in hypothalamus. This in turn
causes vasodilation of penile
arterioles. or
● Reflex stimulation of sacral plexus
in infants, and sleeping adult males
(very common in dream state).
EJACULATION
● A SYMPATHETIC FUNCTION!!
● Sympathetic fibers innervate
smooth muscle of ductus deferens.
● Produces forceful peristaltic
contractions of smooth muscle of
ductus deferens.
● Peristalsis propels sperm and
seminal fluid out distal end of
. urethra.
HORMONAL REGULATION IN MALES
● GONADOTROPIN RELEASING
HORMONE (GnRH) – stimulates
secretion of FSH and LH. This
happens when there is a low
concentration of testosterone.

● FOLLICLE STIMULATING
HORMONE (FSH) and LUTEINIZING
HORMONE (LH) – both produced by
anterior pituitary. Responsible for
stimulating spermatogenesis and
testosterone secretion.
● TESTOSTERONE – stimulates
development of male sex organs, as
well as secondary sexual
characteristics. Participates in
feedback loop involving GnRH. Also
inhibits secretion of LH.
● INHIBIN – secreted by
sustentacular cells. Inhibits
secretion of FSH.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Testis - Produces sperm cells.
● Penis - Deposits sperm into the
vagina during mating.
● Scrotum - Sac of skin that holds the
testis.
● Urethra - Carries sperm and urine
out of the body.
● Vas Deferens - Also called
DUCTUS DEFERENS. Carries
sperm from testes to urethra.
● Epididymis.Rete testis ultimately
drains into larger tubules called
efferent ducts 🐥, which in turn
drain into EPIDIDYMIS.
GLANDS
● SEMINAL VESICLE - Plastered up
against the dorsal side of urinary
bladder.
● PROSTATE GLAND - Prostate is a
mass of connective tissue, Secretes
a slightly Alkaline Milky Fluid.
● BULBOURETHRAL GLAND - Pair
of glands at base of prostate.
Secretes a thick and clear mucus
that LUBRICATES and
NEUTRALISES any trace of acidic
urine in the urethra.
HORMONES
- A chemical substance released by
the glands of the endocrine systems
directly into the bloodstream.
- “CHEMICAL MESSENGERS”
- It controls and regulates the
activity of certain cells or organs.
Testosterone has a role in:
● Sex drive (libido)
● Making sperm
● Muscle mass and strength
● Bone density
● INHIBIN - The hormone is released
into the circulation when the sperm
count is too high.
- Secreted by the Sertoli cells
and acts to decrease the
🐥 levels of FSH.
- Acts as negative feedback to
slow the release of FSH and
GnRH.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 . FOLLICLES .
. MEIOSIS IN FEMALES . Each primary oocyte is packaged in an
(Recall that in males, each germinal cell epitheial vesicle called a FOLLICLE.
produces four haploid cells – each of which
becomes a viable sperm cell.) It is within follicle that second meiotic
division takes place to create secondary
● In females, only one of the resulting oocyte.
cells will be viable and the other
three recycled.

● After first meiotic division in

females, each germinal cell leads to
two (diploid). (PRIMARY OOCYTE)

● After second meiotic division, the

remaining largest cell is the
SECONDARY OOCYTE.
Follicular structure has 4 stages:
1. Primordial Follicle (Primary Follicle)
– not yet growing.
2. Vesicular Ovarian Follicle
(GRAFFIAN FOLLICLE) – about
ready to release a secondary oocyte.
3. CORPUS LUTEUM – what is left of
oocyte after it released for
ovulation.
Corpus luteum secretes ESTROGEN and
PROGESTERONE, both of which are
important in regulating female menstrual
cycle.
4. CORPUS ALBICANS – degenerate
form.
. OVULATION
Is the release of a secondary oocyte from a
mature follicle.
- Occurs in response to high
concentrations of FSH and LH.
Secondary oocyte is “ejected” from the
ovary directly through the mass of the
ovarian wall.
- Fimbriae directs oocyte into
fallopian tube, preventing
movement into coelom.
. HORMONAL REGULATION IN
. NONPREGNANT FEMALE
. (UTERINE CYCLE)
1. (GnRH). This stimulates the
anterior pituitary to release FSH and
LH.
. 2. (FSH) stimulates maturation of
primary oocytes in an immature
follicle.
3. FOLLICLE PRODUCES ESTROGEN.
Estrogen: builds the uterine
wall (the endometrium);
inhibits secretion of FSH.
4. High levels of estrogen further
stimulates secretion of LH by
Anterior Pituitary.
a. This plus FSH also causes
ovulation of the secondary
. oocyte – leaving follicle
. without egg (the corpus
. luteum).
5. CORPUS LUTEUM SECRETES
ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE.
This maintains the endometrium
for 15-16 days and inhibits LH.
6. (If oocyte is not fertilized and
implanted in the uterine wall)
CORPUS DEGENERATES (TO
CORPUS ALBICANS) AND STOPS
PRODUCING ESTROGEN AND
PROGESTERONE.
7. WITHOUT ESTROGEN AND
PROGESTERONE, ENDOMETRIUM
BREAKS DOWN –
MENSTRUATION OCCURS.
Menstruation is the sloughing off of
the enlarged endometrial wall along
with blood and mucous.
 8. DECREASE IN PROGESTERONE
AND LH. Low LH causes secretion
of FSH by pituitary again. The cycle
repeats.
SPERM GETS TO EGG...
FERTILIZATION CAN TAKE PLACE, AND
ULTIMATELY, EMBRYO CAN BECOME
IMPLANTED IN UTERINE WALL.
● From point of ovulation (about day
15) to the point where the corpus
luteum begins to degenerate (about
day 25), fertilization can take place.
● The potential for fertilization is
highest during the first three days of
this 10-day period.
● Sperm with X-chromosome tend to
be more robust, and can last longer
than those with Y-chromosome.
AND, females can be capable of
sperm storage.
● So...if intercourse takes place a bit
before ovulation and more robust
sperm (with X-chromosome) are
stored while weaker
(Y-chromosome) sperm die off
waiting for ovulation, the chance of
having a baby girl increases.
SPERM STORAGE IN THE FEMALE
● Apparently, females can store
sperm up to 4 days. This explains in
part why the “rhythm method”
works poorly to avoid pregnancy.
(Also, it turns out that unused oocytes are
actively scavanged./REMOVED)
● With sex before ovulation, sperm
can be stored for use. So, even
though ovulation hasn’t occurred,
pregnancy can occur because the
female is holding on the the sperm.
● Sex AFTER ovulation actually has a
slightly lower chance for inducing
pregnancy, as the egg could have
been scavanged.
HORMONAL REGULATION IN PREGNANT
FEMALES
● Recall that developiong embryo has
extra-embryonic membranes:
- Chorion
- Amnion
- yolk sac
- allantois.
 ● Chorion and allantois are
embryonic contributions to
placenta.
● Chorionic portion secretes HUMAN
CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN
(hCG).
● hCG prevents corpus luteum from
degenerating – thus it continues to
secrete PROGESTERONE AND
ESTROGEN.
● This maintains integrity of the
uterine wall and inhibits subsequent
ovulation (due to lack of FSH or LH).
● Birth-control pills mimic the high
estrogen/progesterone levels to
trick the body into thinking it is
pregnant and thus inhibiting
ovulation.
Endocrine System
● A system that includes all of the
glands in the body and the
hormones produced by your glands.
● One of the two bodily systems for
COMMUNICATION AND
CHEMICAL REGULATION. (the
other one is the nervous system)
PARTS:
HYPOTHALAMUS
- Brain region controlling the pituitary
gland.
PITUITARY GLAND
- The “master gland”, also known as
HYPOPHYSIS.
- Secretes many different hormones,
some of which affects other glands.
FEMALE SYSTEM Reproductive
● The female reproductive system is
responsible for three functions:
menstruation, reproduction, and
sexual activity.
● The parts of the female reproductive
system are divided into two
categories: external and internal
parts.
External PARTS
● The function of your external
genitals is to protect the internal
parts from infection and allow
sperm to enter your vagina.
VULVA is the collective name for all your
external genitals. A lot of people
mistakenly use the term “vagina” to
describe all female reproductive parts.
However, your vagina is its structure
located inside your body.
THE VULVA
1. Labia majora - (“large lips”) enclose
and protect the other external
reproductive organs. During
puberty, hair growth occurs on the
skin of the labia majora, which also
contains sweat and oil-secreting
glands.
2. Labia minora - (“small lips”) can
have a variety of sizes and shapes.
They lie just inside the labia majora
and surround the opening to your
vagina and urethra. This skin is very
delicate and can become easily
irritated and swollen.
3. Clitoris - The two labia minora
MEET at the clitoris, a small,
sensitive protrusion that’s
comparable to a penis in men or
people assigned male at birth. The
clitoris is covered by a fold of skin
called the PREPUCE and is very
sensitive to stimulation.
4. Vaginal Opening - The vaginal
opening ALLOWS menstrual blood
and babies to exit your body.
Tampons, fingers, sex toys, or
penises can go inside the vagina
through your vaginal opening.
5. Hymen - a piece of tissue covering
or surrounding part of the vaginal
opening. It’s formed during
development and present during
birth.
6. Urethral Opening - The opening to
the urethra is the tube connected to
the bladder and is the opening
where females pee.
Internal PARTS
- The functions of your internal
genitalia is to serve as the structure
for reproduction and where the
developing baby nestles until birth.
The MAIN PARTS OF THE FEMALE
INTERNAL GENITALIA consist of:
1. VAGINA is a muscular canal that
joins the CERVIX (the LOWER
PART of the uterus) to the outside
of the body. It can widen to
accommodate a baby during
delivery and then shrink back to
hold something narrow like a
tampon. It’s lined with mucous
membranes that help keep it moist.
2. The CERVIX is the lowest part of
the uterus. A HOLE IN THE MIDDLE
allows sperm to enter and
menstrual blood to exit. The cervix
opens (dilates) to allow a baby to
come out during a vaginal childbirth.
Cervix is what prevents things like
tampons from getting lost inside
your body.
3. The UTERUS is a hollow,
pear-shaped organ that holds a
fetus during pregnancy. The uterus
is divided into two parts: the cervix
and the corpus. CORPUS is the
larger part of the uterus that
expands during pregnancy.
4. OVARIES are small, oval-shaped
glands that are located on either
 side of the uterus. Ovaries produce
eggs and hormones.
5. FALLOPIAN TUBES - Narrow
tubes that are attached to the upper
part of the uterus, serve as
path-ways for your egg (ovum) to
travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
- FERTILIZATION OF AN EGG
by sperm normally occurs in
the fallopian tubes. The
fertilized egg then moves to
the uterus, where it
implants into the uterine
lining.
HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM?
● Get treated for Sexually
Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Immediately
● Always Use Contraception
● Take Supplements to Boost Your
Health
● Keep Your Weight Under Control
● Quit Smoking and Alcohol Use
FEMALE Hormones
1. Pituitary Gland - Produced by the
BRAIN that can CONTROL the
main reproductive tissues (ovaries,
uterus, and fallopian tubes). It
produces and releases several
hormones that help carry out
important bodily functions, including
growth, metabolism and
reproduction.
2. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) is produced by the
HYPOTHALAMUS. When it
circulates in the blood, it causes the
release of two important
hormones from the pituitary gland
in another specialized part of the
brain.
Two important hormones from the
pituitary gland:
1. FOLLICLE-STIMULATING
HORMONE (FSH) - produced by
the pituitary gland during the first
half of the menstrual cycle.
STIMULATES THE GROWTH AND
MATURATION of ovarian follicles
in the ovaries during the follicular
phase of the menstrual cycle, and
controls ovum (egg cell)
production in the female.
2. LUTEINIZING HORMONES (LH) -
also produced by the pituitary gland
in the brain. It STIMULATES the
ovaries to produce ESTROGEN and
PROGESTERONE. It triggers
ovulation (the release of a mature
ovum from the ovary)
● ESTROGEN - is a female
reproductive hormone, produced
primarily by the ovaries. It promotes
the maturation and release of an
ovum (egg cell) in every menstrual
cycle. It is also produced by the
PLACENTA during pregnancy.
 ● PROGESTERONE - Produced by
the CORPUS LUTEUM in the
ovaries (and later by the placenta
during pregnancy). Progesterone
creates a healthy uterine lining
(ENDOMETRIUM) to support a
fertilized egg, embryo and fetus. It
also suppresses the PRODUCTION
OF ESTROGEN after ovulation has
occurred.
● CORPUS LUTEUM - a MASS OF
CELLS that forms in an ovary. It is a
temporary organ that appears
every menstrual cycle and
disappears if fertilization does not
occur.
● INHIBIN - Produced by the ovaries,
inhibin INHIBITS THE SECRETION
OF FSH from the pituitary gland,
providing NEGATIVE FEEDBACK to
regulate the menstrual cycle.
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
TERMS
● MENSTRUATION - the process in
which blood and other tissues are
SHED from the uterus and leave
the body through the vagina
● MENARCHE - FIRST menstruation,
normally occurs at the age of 11-15
years old
● MENOPAUSE - ovaries can NO
LONGER PRODUCE egg cells,
normally occurs at the age of 45
and 55 years old. EXTREME DROP
of estrogen and progesterone
levels (produces very less).
The MENSTRUAL Cycle
1. MENSTRUAL (Days 1-5) depend on
what date does the start of
menstruation occurs.
- Endometrium is shed; follicle
growth IN OVARY.
- Menstrual fluid comes out
of our vagina.
2. FOLLICULAR (Days 6-13)
- Follicles GROW AND
MATURE
- ENDOMETRIUM will start
to thicken again.
- ESTROGEN is secreted
- LH is being stimulated by
the pituitary gland.
3. OVULATION (Day 14th)
- On this day, pregnancy is
surely possible because the
egg cell bursts from the
follicle and goes to the
OVIDUCT or fallopian tube
and will be waiting for a
sperm cell.
4. LUTEUM (Days 15-28)
- LONGEST phase-2 weeks
- The Luteinizing Hormone
(LH) CAUSES CORPUS
LUTEUM TO DEVELOP from
follicle.
- After the egg cell bursts
from the follicle, the follicle
will now transform to corpus
luteum.
 - CORPUS LUTEUM -
secretes ESTROGEN and
PROGESTERONE.
- Due to the high level of
progesterone, it THICKENS
the endometrium and is
maintained to prevent
contractions.
- INHIBIT LH & FSH (being
inhibited to lower the levels
of LH & FSH).
What if the EGG is FERTILIZED?
● The cycle will not go back to the
flow. However, the fertilized egg
will IMPLANT ITSELF IN THE
ENDOMETRIUM.
● MORE PRODUCTION of
progesterone and estrogen to
support the fertilized egg via
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
endometrium.
● Period stops during pregnancy due
to endometrium stops shedding
(NEEDED by the placenta /
embryo).
HORMONES
1. GnRH - comes from the
hypothalamus.
- it is needed to release the LH
and FSH in the pituitary
gland.
2. LH - Surge causes ovulation
- Results in the FORMATION
OF CORPUS LUTEUM.
- TRIGGERS corpus luteum to
secrete PROGESTERONE.
3. FSH - STIMULATES follicle growth
in ovaries.
- STIMULATES estrogen
secretion from developing
FOLLICLES (small sac
containing the eggs).
4. ESTROGEN - helps the
development of your baby's organs
and the correct function of the
placenta.
5. PROGESTERONE- thickens your
uterine lining (endometrium).
- PREVENTS your body from
ovulating while you're
pregnant.
- Inhibits LH and FSH during
LUTEAL PHASE.
- The process through which the
level of ONE SUBSTANCE
(HORMONE) INFLUENCES THE
LEVEL OF ANOTHER substance
- It is important to maintain
HOMEOSTASIS. (A self-regulating
process by which a living organism
can maintain internal stability while
adjusting to changing external
conditions)
 their target cells to maintain homeostasis.
POSITIVE Feedback Mechanism
● STIMULATES the increase of the The major endocrine glands in the body are
levels of a hormone. the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,
● Also happens during a woman's adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
pregnancy with an increase of at
least 6 times of estrogen in order
to develop and support the baby
before the placenta takes over.
● The HUMAN CHORIONIC
GONADOTROPHIN (HCG) is also
produced almost exclusively in the
placenta during pregnancy, and
REPLACES LUTEINIZING
HORMONE (LH) which stops
period from happening during
pregnancy.

NEGATIVE Feedback Mechanism

● PROGESTERONE - Inhibits or
stops the production of a certain
hormone.

. Endocrine System .
- composed of different glands which
secrete hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and
development, mood, and
reproduction.

Hormones
- organic substances released by the
glands of the endocrine system
directly into the bloodstream.

Hormones are capable of changing the

physiological and metabolic behaviors of
. MENSTRUAL CYCLE .
★ Menstruation is a sign that a girl is
capable of producing offspring.
★ Gametes - sex cells

★ The menstrual cycle is a series of

changes during which an egg
matures, and the uterus is prepared
for possible pregnancy. It entails a
biological feedback system that
regulates the activities of the
structures involved in the processes.
. MENSTRUAL CYCLE .
The menstrual cycle is influenced by the 1. Follicular Phase. The follicular
endocrine system through the complex phase starts on day 1 of
interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary menstruation and ends with
and gonads (reproductive or sex ovulation (day 14).
organs, specifically the ovaries and testes).
The brain (anterior pituitary) sends the
The length of the menstrual cycle varies Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) to the
from woman to woman but the average ovaries to signal follicles to grow and
cycle is 28 days. mature.

These follicles produce estrogen. Estrogen

acts on the uterus to stimulate the
thickening of the endometrium (uterine
lining).

When estrogen peaks, it signals the brain

to release Luteinizing Hormone (LH). This
triggers ovulation.

2. Ovulation. Ovulation occurs

mid-cycle, around two weeks or so
before menstruation starts.
 and discomfort during menstrual periods is
On this day, the mature egg from the normal. Excessive pain that causes you
follicle travels from the ovary down to the to miss work or school must be given
fallopian tube and into the uterus. medical attention.

At any time during the egg’s journey

Fertilized: egg developed as embryo/fetus.
Not fertilized: continue to uterus and die
within 6 to 24H.

3. Luteal Phase. The luteal phase

includes the day after ovulation to
the day before your next period.

Our body's chemical messengers are the

During the luteal phase, LH and FSH levels
hormones produced by the glands
decrease.
of the endocrine system.

Once it releases its egg, the empty follicle

Hormones, even in little amounts, can
develops into a new structure called the
control many of the changes in the
corpus luteum which produces
reproductive system including those
progesterone.
leading to the menstrual cycle.

If the egg isn't fertilized, the corpus luteum

degenerates and estrogen level decreases.

The hormonal changes of this phase are

associated with symptoms of premenstrual
syndrome (PMS) such as pimples,
headaches, fatigue, dizziness, mood
changes, bloating, pain, swelling of the
breasts,and food cravings.

The menstrual cycle can continue in a

woman for about 40 years stopping
temporarily during pregnancy and resumes
after giving birth. Some pain, cramping,