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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

A conceptual framework for including “safety in design” in

engineering training and design practise

Weifang Shi1,3, Alice Chang-Richards1 and Brian H.W. Guo2

1
Civil and Environment Engineering department, University of Auckland, 20 Symonds
Street, Auckland-1010 New Zealand.
2
Civil & Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch-
8140, New Zealand
3
Civil Engineering and Architecture Department, Zhongyuan University of
Technology,41 Zhongyuan Road, Zhengzhou-450007, P.R. China
Email: wshi306@aucklanduni.ac.nz

Abstract. Despite significant efforts taken to reduce hazards on the construction site, statistics
across the globe suggest that construction-related fatalities remain high. While prevention
through design gains momentum to eliminate latent health & safety hazards at the upfront design
stage, designers often lack experience in recognising hazards that occur later on during the
construction or operational stage. To fill this gap, this paper develops a conceptual framework
to better communicate safety in design (SiD) to designers, thus raising their awareness of SiD
and building their capability when considering appropriate design features. The conceptual
framework embrace visualization, knowledge sharing, highly engagement and embedded-in
questionnaire technologies. This research is part of a doctoral study, and it is hoped to lay a
conceptual foundation for ongoing research that aims to enable designers to embrace SiD in their
training and practice in the future.

1. Introduction

1.1. Fatalities statistics

The construction industry's main features are the large-scale, uncertainty, and complexity [1]. The
staggering number of causalities in construction projects exceeds other commercial sectors [2-4]. In the
United States, according to the Bureau of Labour Statistics (BLS), the annual fatal injuries related to the
construction sector from 2016 to 2020 kept an average number of approximately 1000 per year; these
numbers included the workers and supervisors. Compared to 2019, the amount descended to 976 in
2020; however, the injury rate increased by 6% [5]. In the UK, the construction sector kept first place
in fatal injuries among all the major industries between 2020 and 2021, and in 2021 the work-related
injuries were approximately 1.5 times compared to the average rate [6]. In Australia, the fatalities
happening in the construction sector are not optimistic. There were 35 work-related fatalities in 2016,
declining to 24 in 2018, 26 in 2019 and 36 in 2020 [7].
In New Zealand, based on the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) report, about 15% of all
occupational injuries occurred in the construction industry in 2015, leading to a substantial economic
loss of approximately $108 million [8]. According to the data provided by Worksafe, in 2018, the
number of work-related fatalities was 64, while, in 2019, the number increased to 110, with a leap in

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

December at the speed of three times the average amount. The fatality rate in 2020 increased by 5.2%
compared to 2019, and the injury rate increased by 8.6% [9]. Among all the fatalities, the construction
sector took first place. The worse safety performance drives the researchers to make endeavours on
improving the safety performance, especially in the background of the New Zealand construction sector.

1.2. Research on construction safety

A plethora of researchers have already devoted themselves to the studies in construction safety and made
tremendous success. Some are about the innovative conception of scientific management. Jaselskis,
Anderson and Russell [10] explored the strategies for improving safety performance by analysing
numerical profiles of companies and projects. Hallowell and Gambatese [11] investigated the elements
that affected the effectiveness of construction risk mitigation in the risk management program. The
achievements in the construction safety community reflect in novel techniques.
Using geographic information systems (GIS), Bansal [12] leveraged 4D modelling, geospatial
analysis, and topographic modelling to develop safe execution sequences. Those studies concentrate on
the construction stage and attribute construction site safety responsibly to contractors.
However, construction safety at the design stage has statistically proved to be highly influencing
safety performance. An investigation in Europe revealed that three-fifths of construction-related
fatalities could be ascribed to the decisions in the design stage [13]. Behm [14] claimed that
approximately 22% of injuries and 42% of work-related deaths were linked to design in the US. A study
reported that unsafe design contributed to 37% of fatalities and up to 30% of injuries in workplaces in
Australia [15]. Therefore, we commit this research to consider a competently involved designer's safety
in design (SiD).

1.3. Research problems

There exist barriers that preclude the implementation of (SiD). Attitudes of the design professionals
towards SiD turned out to be reluctant [16-18] in the early stage. Even more and more research indicates
that designers are optimistic about their responsibilities for worker safety [19-22]. In a global range, the
shortage of knowledge hinders the fulfilment of SiD [23, 24]. These investigations conduct online
questionnaires for collecting the data from industries professionals; there is no situ in hazards as opposed
to the respondents for them to verify the responsible party. Researchers view safety knowledge and
learning as products that may be preserved and distributed as needed [25]. In contrast, the existing
studies fail to resolve centralized storage of this design knowledge for all designers to access, which
must be shared among the entire SiD community [26].

1.4. Point of departure

To address the abovementioned problems, our research investigates the effective technologies and
strategies enabling SiD knowledge acquisition and sharing, thus contributing to construction safety
performance. Established on the learning methods, leading state-of-art technologies were analysed and
proposed in the form of a conceptual framework, which is the significant contribution of this study. The
conceptual framework integrates (1) knowledge to support SiD implementation, (2) technologies and
enablers ensuring safe knowledge learning, (3) embedded-in attitude questionnaire, and (4) defined
knowledge sharing using emerging technologies inconsistent with learning in the context of SiD. This
paper will enrich the body of knowledge in the safe design community and support the future
development of a tool to communicate to the AEC industry team and benefit from SiD.

2. Literature review

2.1. Safety in design

Safety in Design (SiD), known as hazards prevention through design (PtD), signifies the concept of
considering construction safety during the design stage as a proven workable plan [14]. SiD is a method

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

for alleviating the potential hazards threatening safety on construction sites in the design phase [27].
Implementing SiD is one of the effective ways to tackle occupational accidents, injuries, and illnesses
in construction. The industry sector focuses on the main fields of SiD in Practice, Policy, Research and
Education [28]. The research conducted by Gambatese [29] indicated that the execution of Construction,
Design, and Management (CDM) regulation explicitly delineated the responsibilities of different
stakeholders for benefiting workers' health & safety, which should be linked to the architecture
presentation, materials, and assembling the components [30].

2.2. Safety knowledge learning methods

It is argued that construction safety practice and knowledge are mutually constitutive and intertwined.
It is essential to realize that safety learning occurs among and through human interactions and site-
specific elements [25]. Learning of SiD should combine knowledge with practise to produce expected
results and is encouraged to be situated on construction sites.

The familiarity with the construction process contributes to the designer's willingness to participate in
hazard elimination, and designers need to learn the construction process and identify potential safety
hazards [31]. Toole [18] encouraged designers to positively experience construction sites to acquire
safety-related knowledge. However, the fail-safety environment with numerous hazards jeopardizes the
site learning. Barriers also exist in the availability of space (e.g. conflict with normal construction
activities), the particular stage (e.g. trenching), and the long-term construction, which make learning the
whole construction process to be difficult [32].

The computer-aided technologies, such as serious games (SGs), immersive virtual reality (IVR),
augmented reality (AR), etc., are superior in the effectiveness of learning compared to traditional tools(
e.g., lecture) [8]. Burke, Sarpy, Smith-Crowe, Chan-Serafin, Salvador and Islam [33] conducted a quasi-
experiment through the whole fields of health & safety (H&S) training and concluded that even if all
the methods produce significant improvements, higher engagement would output more success. He
demonstrated that the engagement enables high knowledge acquisition, and among all the elements,
modelling and dialogue are generally more effective for training are generally more effective.

Table 1. Training methods and level of interactivity

Interactivity Low engagement Medium engagement High engagement

Intervention methods
Lecture, brochures, videos √
Programmed instruction, √
feedback intervention
Modelling, hand-on √

3. Apparatuses Backing SiD learning

The research methodology should discuss the approach to the research design, data collection, and data
analysis. One of the most critical issues to be addressed here is the appropriateness of the selected
methods compared to other alternatives. It is an opportunity for the authors to demonstrate an
understanding of the research tools commonly used in the safe design field and the knowledge
requisition approach. The conceptual framework is initiated to construct a robust methodology for
tackling the research problems.

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

3.1. Requisitions of SiD Learning

Abdelhamid and Everett [34] stressed that a lack of recognition of hazards was a significant factor in
accidents. Even though it is not too demanding for the design professionals to interact with physical
objects and grasp the operation skills on-site, the recognition skills to "design out hazards are equivalent
to workers on-site to protect themselves from injuries. A hazard is a derivative in the process of product
threatening the safety and leading to injuries during the work [35]. The method enables the site-specific
learning to comprise any designed-in construction procedures (e.g., trenching, roofing, pouring
concrete) without exposure to numerous hazards threatening the H&S is in significant need. Besides,
the engaging mechanism that involves the designers will reinforce the effectiveness of hazard
recognition and learning performance.

3.2. State of the Art

No exposure of hazards is the priority of all the technologies taken. To get success concepts adapted to
SiD learning, the researchers consider four aspects: (1) visualisation technologies provide situ-in
experience, (2) fresh concepts on measuring designers' attitudes through the embedded-in questionnaire,
(3) highly engagement technologies, and (4) sharing technology exclusive of a complex operation.
Firstly, the visualisation technology presents the physical states in three dimensions and enables
presenting the actual world in a digital form. For instance, building information modelling includes all
the elements to be constructed. Secondly, instead of the conventional method, such as Toh, Goh and
Guo [36] investigated the designers' attitude toward SiD in the forms of the online and paper-based
questionnaires, the embedded survey should complete the survey in the simulated context of the instant
response. Thirdly, the high engagement technologies guarantee more effective learning. Finally, sharing
knowledge accelerates repository creation and contributes to SiD knowledge diffusion by information
technology.

3.3. Complementary Technologies

To implement the SiD knowledge transformation, three core and eight preliminary technologies or
concepts integrate the entire framework. In this section, a detailed description of these technologies and,
importantly, the elements enabling the SiD learning are analysed and considered to be the members of
the conceptual framework.

3.3.1 Visualisation Technologies. Visualisation, as a novel invention, can avoid on-site learning conflicts
with activities and provide hands-on opportunities for training, including building information
modelling (BIM), virtual reality(VR), augmented reality(AR), etc. [2]. BIM buds in the H&S training;
however, it emphasises the modelling per se without encouraging user interaction. For instance, Ahn,
Kim, Park and Kim [37] conducted a training utilizing BIM to improve safety on construction sites.
When we revised the site's environment, the contents emphasised personal protection equipment,
elevator openings, etc.
Sacks, Perlman and Barak [38] researched safety training and found that VR training proved more
effective when it came to keeping participants' attention and concentration. This research used the prior-
test, post-test, and one-month-after effectiveness measurement method, which could be adapted not only
on knowledge acquisition but also to retention. The sounds were brought in, 3D Max and the assets
create the static hazards by BIM. Dynamic hazards were realized in physics and keyframe animation.
The aviator was introduced for the group learning in 'third-person' view, while the personal experience
for the single trainee. Jeelani et al. (2020) developed IVR and stereo-panoramic environments for
construction safety instruction with a distinguished improvement in terms of hazards recognition and
management. In this study, he used stereo 360° motion cameras to create a realistic environment with
dynamic, audio-visual, and rich sites information. Besides, components and dynamic audio-visual
effects were built in the 3D CAD. Before and after measurement was used to test hazards recognition
and management score. The score is given by the way of. Meanwhile, customized protocol was used in
the form of hazards recognition result and attention feedback in addition to accident simulation, hazards
management and verbal guided instruction by the instructor.

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

Heinzel, Azhar and Nadeem [39] investigated the opportunities and challenges in recruiting during
the construction stage and attributed the barriers to costs while neglecting the hazards on construction
sites and the common sense with the noise. The operation is encouraging, as AR has been successfully
used in machinery[40].
We categorised visualisation technology as modelling and immersion and combined the two. With
realistic and hazard-free attributes in safety training, visualisation technologies commit to hazard
recognition and learning engagement with distinctive features.
3.3.2 Embedded-in questionnaire (EQ) towards designers' attitudes. Besides hazards-free visualisation
technology per se, the add-in method will enable more value to the SiD concept understanding and
learning. It could be a way to present their real thoughts. Goh and Chua [41] developed a scale on the
knowledge, attitude, and practise (KAP), and was wildly used for the SiD research and found that nearly
all the respondents support safety should be part of their professional responsibilities. This metric was
widely used to measure the designers' KAP. However, the instrument is most taken through online
questionnaires instead of situated hazards. Hence, we initiate the EQ to accomplish attitude assessment
(AS). The designers will be confronted with hazards and attribute the responsibility to the EQ, thus
judging whether the attitude stems from their conscience or fear of external criticisms of violating the
common good. Previous studies have already realized to implant the questionnaire in the situated
scenario, such as the study probing the impact of finishing presence surveys momentarily in VR to avoid
disorientation [42].

3.3.3 Engagement strategies. Highly engagement guarantees the effectiveness of learning. SGs have
proved to be a promising method for a proper motivational function of engaging learners in the education
domain [43]. Din and Gibson Jr [44] claimed that the participant would benefit from the graphic design,
the storyboard, and participation. Two aspects need to be considered for the configuration of SGs:
pedagogic and game mechanics. Feedback is a crucial learning stage, and immediate or real-time
feedback could also provide the data for comparing the learning performance. As a learning supportive
strategy with non- entertainment game design and mechanics in addressing problems and engaging users,
gamification has ten ingredients of Great Games, are proposed by Reeves and Read [45]. Among these
elements, self-representation with avatars, three-dimensional environments; narrative context; feedback;
and time pressure mechanic are employed for self-presently and socially representation. Given the
diverse background of the designers with specific majors, expertise and experience, the technology
distinguishes delivery modes is needed to elevate the engagement. Zea, Valez-Balderas and Uribe-
Quevedo [46] carried out research on the customized learning (CL) among multi-intelligences to
optimize the user experience.

3.3.4 Knowledge-sharing technologies. Knowledge is defined as a product through interaction, and

transferring is important. Allowing the sharing of knowledge from individuals and retaining this
knowledge in memory is always of interest to the organization [47]. However, the research conducted
by Hallowell [48] manifested the obstructions on safety knowledge storage and transition and
encouraged knowledge capturing. Information technology can be classified into utilising legitimate
storage for reserving and sharing information and utilising a communication medium for communicating
and transporting information among people [49]. However, digital technologies are underestimated in
the knowledge-sharing concept. Barriers exist to the complex operation of databases (e.g., access query
language), thus leaving ways to the use-friendly-tech encouraging designers to use. Therefore, the
requirement of the sharing tool should consist of attributes: knowledge repository, transition, extraction,
and user-friendly and easy-access tool.
The findings of Zou, Kiviniemi and Jones [50] suggest that BIM can be used not only to help the
project development process as a systematic risk management tool but also as a primary data generator
and platform to allow risk analysis by other BIM-based technologies. Feng, González, Mutch, Amor,
Rahouti, Baghouz, Li and Cabrera-Guerrero [51] developed customized IVR and initiated the concept

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

of a modulation storyline supporting the earthquake evacuation. In his study, library creation facilitates
IVR as a visualizing database concept with ease of interaction. Instead of learning a programming
language for access, the users' feedback could act as the extraction of their experience. Hence, several
visualisation technologies squaring with the above-mentioned four essential items are endorsed as the
sharing technology in this paper. Knowledge extraction with ease-access and low-cost augments IVR
extra.

4. A conceptual framework for SiD implementation

We canvass the merits of technologies and strategies for promising SiD knowledge learning and sharing
as the core advantages. Therefore, clutching primary purposes and nucleus technologies as the skeleton,
we proposed the conceptual framework as shown in Fig.1. Through the abovementioned analysis, the
conceptual framework encompasses the enablers of the knowledge visualisation, sharing, and
engagement approaches.

Figure 1. SiD implementation conceptual framework

The hazards are categorised as static and dynamic, and safe design features are the basics for
generating visualizing platform and the elements for scenario and virtual environment creation. Hazards
recognition skills perform as the commencement and will contribute to decision-making according to
elimination, substitution or engineering control strategies. The strategies or design features in this
context refer to safe design knowledge. Knowledge is the principal component supporting the storyline
description and outcome delivery. The resources for the knowledge are mainly in regulations, best
practise, documents, etc. [52, 53]. Safe design suggestions [54], rules [55], manuals and checklists [56]
could also be collected as components for the safe design knowledge repository. In addition, tailored
design features are of great significance for future research in New Zealand, and interviews with the
AEC panel professionals will be utilized as suggested by Gambatese, Hinze and Haas [57].
EQ is promoted as situ-in the method for the AS and realized through the interaction of SGs. IVR,
BIM and AR are the prevalent and encouraging technology with the modelling, visualisation, presence
and realistic environment. The game mechanism and pedagogies compromised in SGs guarantee the
engagement of the designers. CL is also encouraged to support various designers with specialised
backgrounds, thereby advancing the learning efficacy. With information built-in, BIM per se could serve

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World Building Congress 2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

as the repository, and VR could be employed for storing the scenarios with specific hazards and designer
features encapsulated in.

5. Conclusions and Further Research

The researchers investigated the work-related fatalities in the UK, the US, Australia, and New Zealand
(NZ) and found that the safety performance in NZ is inferior. Difficulty communicating with designers
to SiD, especially on improving designers' knowledge, stimulates the authors to explore the promising
manners. Emerging technologies are interconnected and accommodated frenziedly to benefit the whole
industry. Learning safe design knowledge, cultivating safety conscientiousness, and shifting attitudes
are the main objectives to be considered while generating the framework. The learning contents are
converted by the scenarios created, and the amount is confined to the gathered knowledge storage. The
knowledge should be expanded by more experts, including the professionals contributing to the design
and safety community.
The authors investigate the strategies and advocate for involving them to SiD. Among the promising
technologies, visualisation incorporates VR, AR and BIM with the guarantee of visual effects and vivid
three-dimensional realistic experience. AR strengthens the practise-demanding skills, BIM emphasises
the information and VR triumphs in the flexible and immersive. Future development will be based on
exploring the AEC industry's real hazards in NZ and available conditions.
Embedded-in questionnaires enable the situ-in attitude assessment to understand the natural
conscientiousness of the designers. SGs are encompassing in the gamification mechanism and pedagogy.
Besides the learnedness of prior-to, post-to and one month later measurement, phonic dialogues
implanted in the visualisation are encouraged. As an engagement approach, CL is also selected.
Knowledge sharing is essential to improve safety in the community, which is compassing the academic
and AEC industries. Fortunately, the technologies such as BIM and VR sustain the possibility to enable
extraction, storage, transition and easy access.
The authors have already figured out to utilise IVR combing BIM as the tool according to the enablers
proposed above for the future development and are now undertaking the tailored design features
collection towards enhancing H&S among the whole AEC industries.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1101 (2022) 082023 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1101/8/082023

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