LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __6-7__

TOPIC: HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS/SENSORS

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES: At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
a. have defined the different hardware elements for a process control system;
b. have distinguished the hardware present in a process flow diagram;
c. have distinguished different types of sensors used for temperature, pressure, level, flow,
and composition measurement; and
d. have understood the working principles, advantages and disadvantages, and suitability of
different sensors for control systems.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Overview of hardware used for a process control system

In every control configuration, we can distinguish the following hardware elements:
1. The chemical process – this involves the equipment where physical and chemical
operations occur.
2. The measuring instruments or sensors – this involves devices used to measure
disturbances, the controlled output variables, or secondary output variables, and are the
main sources of information about what is going on in the process.
Examples: temperature sensors/thermocouples, flow meters, pressure gauges, etc.
3. Transducers – devices which translate a mechanical signal into an electrical signal. Many
measurements cannot be used for control until they are converted to physical quantities
which can be transmitted easily such as electric voltage/current or pneumatic signals
hence transducers are installed.
4. Transmitter or transmission lines – carry the measurement signal from the measuring
device to the controller. Types of transmitters include pressure transmitter, flow
transmitter, temperature transmitter, level transmitter, and analytic transmitter.
5. Controller – this is the hardware element that has “intelligence”. It receives information
from the measuring devices and decides what action should be taken by comparing the
measured data to a pre-established set point.
6. Final control element – the hardware element that implements in real life the decision
taken by the controller. Example, if the controller “decides” that the flow rate of the
outlet stream should be increased or decreased in order to keep the liquid level in a tank
at the desired value, it is the valve at the outlet stream that will implement this decision
hence the valve is the final control element.
The control valve is the most frequently encountered final control element but
other final control elements for a chemical process include on-off switches (or relay
switches), variable speed pumps, variable speed compressors
 Actuator – an actuator is part of a final control element that causes a physical change in
the final control device, when signaled to do so.

7. Recording elements – devices which provide a visual demonstration of how a chemical

process behaves. Many process manufacturers are required by law to provide a process
history to regulatory agencies and manufacturers use recorders to help meet these
regulatory requirements. In addition, manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for
trend analysis. By recording the readings of critical measurement points and comparing
those readings over time with the results of the process, the process can be improved.
Different recorders display the data they collect differently. Some recorders list a set of
readings and the times the readings were taken. Others create a chart or graph of the
readings. Recorders that create charts or graphs are called chart recorders.

Figure 1
Hardware elements for the feedback control of a stirred tank heater

(source: Stephanopoulos, G., n.d.)

Referring to Figure 1, the following hardware elements can be identified:

Chemical process element: tank, heating tubes

Measuring instruments/sensors: thermocouple, differential pressure cell
Transducers: thermocouple, differential pressure cell
Transmission lines: electrical signal
Controller: controller
Final control element/s: control valve for steam, control valve for outlet stream
Recording element/s: temperature recorder, liquid-level recorder
Measuring Instruments/Sensors
Sensors, or primary elements, are the first element in the control loop to measure the process
variable. Some commonly used sensors include pressure sensing diaphragms, resistance
temperature detectors (RTD), thermocouples, orifice plates/meters, pitot tubes, venturi tubes,
magnetic flow tubes.

A. Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a medium.
There are 2 kinds of temperature sensors: 1) contact sensors, and 2) non-contact sensors.
However, there are 3 main types of temperature sensors:
- Thermometers
- Resistance Temperature Detectors
- Thermocouples
All these sensors measure a physical property (example: volume of a liquid, current
through a wire), which changes as a function of temperature.

Filled System Thermometer

A filled system thermometer measures temperature due to changes in the volume
of the fluid. Increased molecular movement with increasing temperature causes the fluid
to expand and deform a spiral or a C-shaped tube. The spiral/C-type tube is connected
with a pointer and the tube’s elastic deformation causes the pointer to rotate. The
corresponding temperature can then be read off from a calibrated scale. Although filled-
system thermometer is the simplest and cheapest way to measure temperature, its
accuracy is limited by the calibration marks on the scale. Moreover, since filled system
thermometers are read visually and don’t produce electrical signals, it is difficult to
implement them in process controls that rely heavily on electrical and computerized
control.

Figure 2
Vapor Actuated Filled System Thermometer

(source: https://reotemp.com/)
Resistance Temperature Detectors
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) provide an electrical means of
temperature measurement, making it more convenient for use with a computerized
system. An RTD utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance and temperature,
which may be linear or non-linear. RTDs are preferred for low temperature ranges,
preferably at temperatures not exceeding 700oC as they could become inaccurate due to
degradation of the outer sheath that contains the thermometer.

Figure 3
Parts of a Resistance Temperature Detector

(source: https://thewisdompoint.com/)

Figure 4
Resistance Temperature Detector

(source: https://www.tec-science.com/)
Figure 5
Schematic Diagram of Resistance Temperature Structure

(source: Chemical Process Dynamics and Controls, Book 1)

Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of an RTD. An RTD contains an outer sheath to
prevent contamination from the surrounding medium. The resistance sensor is
responsible for temperature measurement and are composed of metals such as platinum,
nickel, or copper. Table 1 below shows the commonly used metals for the resistance
sensors of RTDs and the temperature range at which it could be used.

Table 1
Common Metal Temperature and Resistance Ranges
Element Metal Temperature Range (oC)
Copper -100 to 260
Nickel -100 to 260
Platinum -260 to 800
(source: Chemical Process Dynamics and Controls, Book 1)

Working equation of RTD (Callendar-Van Dusen Equation):

Error for RTDs occur due to individual or collective efforts of defective insulation,
contamination of the resistor, or not secured wire connections.

Thermocouples
Among the various temperature sensors available, the thermocouple is the most
widely used sensor. Similar to the RTD, the thermocouple provides an electrical
measurement of temperature. Figure 6 shows a picture of a thermocouple. A
 thermocouple has a long, slender, rod-like shape, which allows it to be conveniently
placed in small, tight places, that would sometimes be difficult to reach.

Figure 6
Actual image of a thermocouple

(source: iStock images)

The main principle upon which the thermocouple works is based on the difference
in the conductivities of the two wire materials that the thermocouple is made of, at a
given temperature. The conductivity difference between the two wires, along with a
temperature difference between two junctions, creates an electrical current that flows
through the thermocouple. The first junction point, which is the point at which the two
wires are connected, is placed within the medium whose temperature is being measured.
The second junction point is constantly held at a known reference temperature. When the
temperature of the medium differs from the reference temperature, a current flows
through the circuit. Since the reference temperature and properties of wire materials are
known, the temperature of the medium can be determined from the strength of the
current.
Thermocouples are commonly used at higher temperatures because it is easier to
detect differences in conductivities at higher temperatures. It could be operated over a
wide range of temperatures, from -200oC to 2320oC. Moreover, it should also be noted
that the wire insulation might wear out over time by heavy use, thus requiring periodical
checks and maintenance to preserve the accuracy of the thermocouple.

B. Pressure Sensors
There are three types of pressure measurements:
1. Absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure plus gauge pressure
2. Gauge pressure – absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure
3. Differential pressure – pressure difference between two locations

Sensor Selection Criteria

In order for a pressure-controlled system to function properly and cost-effectively,
it is important that the pressure sensor used be able to give accurate and precise readings
without the need for maintenance or replacement while enduring the conditions of the
system. Several factors influence the suitability of a particular pressure sensor for a given
process: the characteristics of the substances being used or formed during the process, the
environmental conditions of the system, the pressure range of the process, and the level
of precision and sensitivity required in measurements made.
a. Process. The possible chemical reaction/s when the pressure sensing element comes
in contact with the process materials should be considered in choosing the pressure
sensor to be used. Diaphragms are optimal for very harsh environments.

Figure 7
Diaphragm membrane for pressure gauge

b. Environment. The environment (the pipes, vibrations, temperature, etc) in which the
process or operation is carried out should also be considered when selecting the
suitable pressure sensor. Corrosive environments, heavy vibrations in the piping
units, or extreme temperatures will require an added level of protection to our
pressure sensor. To protect pressure sensors or pressure gauges from very harsh,
corrosive environment or frequent vibrations, strong casing materials containing
glycerin or silicone are often used to encase the internal components of the sensor.
c. Pressure Range. The pressure sensor to be used should function well in the pressure
range dictated by the process.
d. Sensitivity. In general, the more precise the sensor, the more expensive it is thus it is
economically viable to choose sensors that are able to satisfy the precision desired.
Time is also an essential element especially for processes in which the pressure is
highly variable over a short period of time. It is unadvisable to use sensors which take
a lot of time to give accurate pressure readings.\

Different Pressure Measuring Methods

- Height of the liquid in column
- Elastic distortion
- Electrical methods

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges

Bourdon tube gauges can operate under a pressure range from 0.1-700 MPa. They
are portable and require little maintenance; however, can only be used for static
measurements and have low accuracy.
 Figure 8
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

(source: https://koboldusa.com/media)

Figure 9
Parts of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

(source: WIKA Blog)

Bellow Pressure Gauge
Bellow pressure gauges are used at low pressures of less than 0.2 MPa with a
sensitivity of 0.0012 MPa and can only be connected to an on/off switch or
potentiometer.

Figure 10
Schematic Diagram of a Bellow Pressure Gauge

Figure 11
Differential Pressure Bellows

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Diaphragms use the elastic deformation of a membrane (could be a rubber,
plastic, or leather) to measure the pressure differences in a system. Diaphragm sensors
are very sensitive to pressure changes. The metal type can measure a maximum pressure
of approximately 7 MPa, while the elastic type is used for measuring extremely low
pressures (0.1 kPa-2.2 MPa) when connected to capacitive transducers or differential
pressure sensors.
 Figure 12
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Figure 13
Elastic deformation in a diaphragm

Electric sensors
At present, sensors are not necessarily only connected to a gauge meter needle
pointer to indicate pressure but may also serve to convert the process pressure into an
electrical or pneumatic signal, which can be transmitted to a control room from which the
pressure reading is determined. Electric sensors use the operating principles of elastic
sensors (pressure sensors discussed above) and incorporate an electrical component to
heighten the sensitivity of the sensor. The electrical component that converts the
changes/deformation in elastic sensors into electric signals is known as a transducer.

Differential Pressure Cells

Differential pressure cells give pressure reading by measuring the pressure
differential caused by orifice plates, flow nozzles, or venturi meters. The pressure
differential is commonly “sensed” by a diaphragm that is paired with a capacitive
element which generates a signal (via change in capacitance).
C. Level Sensors
Level sensors allow the control of fluid level in a vessel. Level sensors are installed in
equipment such as reactors, distillation columns, evaporators, mixing tanks, etc. Level sensors
provide operators with three important data for control:
1. the amount of materials available for processing
2. the amount of products in storage
3. the operating condition

Installing the correct level sensor ensures the safety of the operator and the surrounding
environment by preventing materials in vessels from overflowing or running dry.

Visual level sensors

Visual Level Sensors are the earliest developed and simplest level sensor. These
types of measuring/monitoring devices can be something as simple as looking into an open
container or inserting a marked object (dipstick); these types of sensors require human input with
no way of automation hence electronic issues will not be a problem.

Figure 14
Sight glass; Sight glass installed in a vessel

Float type level sensors

Float sensors take their measurements at the interfaces/surfaces of materials,
where movement of the float and/or the force on the float are caused by the differing densities of
the float and the fluid.
Figure 15
Schematic diagram of a float type level sensor
Figure 16
Float level sensor installed in a tank; float level sensor in a water closet

An advantage of float type level sensors is that they do not require an external energy
source to operate. Another advantage would be its simplicity hence it is easy to repair. Floats
could be made from plastics or metals; selection of material will depend on its application (i.e.,
more chemically resistant materials should be used for corrosive mediums).
It is important to take note that float level sensors should only be used in clean fluids.
Fluids containing suspended solids or slurries could foul the operation of the machine as this
could increase friction on the mechanical linkages and could delay sensor experiences.

Electrical level sensors

a. Conductive level sensors – use a probe to read conductivity. The probe has a
pair of electrodes and applies alternating current to them. When a liquid
covers the probe, its electrodes form a part on an electric circuit, causing a
current to flow thereby signaling a high or low level. This type of sensors is
typically used for conductive and corrosive liquids.
b. Capacitance level sensors – use the change in capacitance to measure the
height of the liquid. It could be used for chemical/petrochemical, food,
charcoal, pharmaceutical, and mining industries.

Radiation-based level sensors

Radiation-based level sensors measure liquid level based on the material’s ability
to absorb or reflect radiation.
 Figure 17
Radiation level sensors

D. Flow Sensors/Flow meters

When choosing a flow meter, these are the things you must consider:
1. How does this flow meter measure flow?
2. How much does it cost?
3. What is its impact on the system? (How much power does it withdraw from
the system and does the disturbance of flow cause significant problems
upstream or downstream?
4. What are the accuracy limits of this flow meter?

Flow meters based on differential pressure

- Orifice meter
- Venturi meter
- Pitot tube

Flow meters based on direct force

a. Rotameter
A rotameter is a vertically installed tube that increases in diameter with
increasing height. Fluid flows in through the bottom of the tube and out
through the top. Inside the glass tube there is a float that changes position
with the flow rate. Generally, rotameters are inexpensive and simple to
use. This allows them to be used in various plant applications.
Figure 18
Schematic diagram of a rotameter

b. Turbine/Mechanical flow meter

This type of flow meter measures flow through turbine rotation with a
propeller, shunt, or paddle wheel design. As the fluid flows through the
pipe, the turbine rotates, and voltage pulses are created as the turbine
passes a magnetic or optical sensor. Voltage information is then translated
into the actual flow meter reading. The water meter that you can see in
your home is a turbine flow meter, instead of a magnetic sensor, a counter
is picks up the rotation in the turbine and translates into a flow reading.

Figure 19
Turbine flow meter
 Advantages of using a turbine flow meter is its reliability, low installation
cost, and low head loss across the meter. However, this type of flow meter
is not suitable to be used for liquids with suspended solids or slurries as
they could clog up in the blades. Moreover, turbine flow meters don’t
work well with a fluid of low flow rate.

Flow meters based on frequency

a. Vortex flow meter
A blunt body is placed in the stream of the flow through a pipe.
When the flow stream hits the body, a series of alternating vortices are
produced, which causes the fluid to swirl as it flows downstream. The
number of vortices formed is directly proportional to the flow velocity and
hence the flow rate. The vortices are detected downstream from the blunt
body using an ultrasonic beam that is transmitted perpendicular to the
direction of flow. As the vortices cross the beam, they alter the carrier wave
as the signal is processed electronically, using a frequency-to-voltage
circuit.

Figure 20
Working principle of a vortex flow meter

Figure 21
Vortex flow meter

Vortex flow meters are best used in a turbulent flow with a Re

> 10,000. One advantage of using vortex flow meter is its
insensitivity to temperature, pressure, and viscosity. The major
disadvantage in using this method is the pressure drop caused
by the flow obstruction.
 b. Ultrasonic flow meters
This type of flow meters use ultrasound to measure the speed of a fluid
flowing in the pipe to measure volumetric flow.

Figure 22
Ultrasonic flow meter

Advantages of ultrasonic flow meters:

- obstruction less flow
- pressure drop equal to an equivalent length of straight pipe
- unaffected by changes in temperature, density, or viscosity
- low flow cutoff
- corrosion-resistant
- accuracy
- relatively low power consumption

Limitations of ultrasonic flow meters:

- Cannot be used for liquids with excess solids or entrained gases
as they could block ultrasonic pulses

Magnetic flow meter

This type uses a magnetic field to measure the speed of a fluid flowing in the pipe
thereby measuring volumetric flow (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction).
According to Faraday’s law, when liquid flows through a magnetic field it generates
voltage. When the fluid is flowing more quickly, more voltage is required. The voltage
generated is proportional to the movement of water; electronics process the voltage signal
into the volumetric flow rate.
Some of its advantages are minimum pressure drop because of minimum
obstructions in flow path and low maintenance cost because it has no moving parts. One
of its disadvantages is that it requires a fluid with high electrical conductivity (liquids
with high concentration of ions).
 Figure 23
Magnetic flow meter

E. Composition sensors
The composition of a material in a process can be determined by using various analytical
tools such as photometric analysis, electrometric analysis, chromatography, mass spectrometry,
thermal conductivity, and various physical property measurements (density and specific gravity).
Two types of testing could be used in determining composition of materials in a process:
- On-line testing
- Off-line testing

On-line analysis
On-line analysis is the continuous monitoring of the composition of a sample,
which is under the influence of a control system and directed by an actuator which can
respond and regulate the operating conditions in real time such that the desired set points
are maintained. On-line testing has two types:

a. In-line testing – the sensor is attached directly to the line and provides
feedback via a transmitter.
b. Slip stream testing – a side stream of the process run alongside the main line,
resembling a bypass. Similar to in-line testing, the sensor is directly attached
to the slip stream and provides feedback through a transmitter.

Advantage of on-line analysis:

- real-time feedback responding to changes in process conditions
Disadvantages of on-line analysis:
- much more complicated compared with off-line analysis
- more expensive
Off-line analysis
Off-line analysis is a method of determining composition which involves the collection of
a sample from the process/operation and analyzing the sample at a location far from the process
line, the laboratory. A sample is manually extracted and are sent to the laboratory for analysis.
Once results of analysis are released and examined, it is when appropriate adjustments to the
process/operation are done.

Advantage:
- introduction of contaminants is minimized\
- cheaper than on-line analysis

Disadvantages:
- Lost time due to sample extraction and transport
- Variability of sample testing locations
- Lag time for adjustments to be made in the process

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

I. Temperature sensors
You are process technician at XYZ Industries and you are responsible for monitoring
and regulating the temperature for one of the company’s reactions. Determine which
temperature sensor would be ideal to use to measure and regulate the reaction’s
temperature in each of the following situations.

Case I. T = 900oC
Case II. T = 500oC but sensor location in a large continuous reactor makes it difficult
to repair
Case III. T = 50oC and you are estimating the current temperature of a lab scale
reaction.

II. Pressure sensors

Suppose you have a semi-batch reactor (1,000 L) with 50 kg of zinc within the reactor
at 1 atm pressure and 25oC. 6 M hydrochloric acid is flowing in at 1 L/min to react
with the zinc to produce zinc chloride for use in another process.
a. What factors should be considered?
b. Say the valve fails at an operating pressure of 4 atm (i.e., it will not close, and the
reactor will be flooded with HCl) At what pressure would you (safely) set the
shutdown point?
c. What type of pressure sensor should be used?