Child Psychology

Introduction
Child psychology is one of the many branches of psychology and one of the most frequently
studied specialty areas. This particular branch focuses on the mind and behavior of children
from prenatal development through adolescence. Child psychology deals not only with how
children grow physically, but with their mental, emotional, and social development as well.
Historically, children were often viewed simply as smaller versions of adults. When Jean
Piaget suggested that children actually think differently than adults, Albert Einstein
proclaimed that the discovery was "so simple that only a genius could have thought of
it."Today, psychologists recognize that child psychology is unique and complex, but many
differ in terms of the unique perspective they take when approaching development. Experts
also differ in their responses to some of the bigger questions in child psychology, such as
whether early experiences matter more than later ones or whether nature or nurture plays a
greater role in certain aspects of development.Because childhood plays such an important
role in the course of the rest of life, it is little wonder why this topic has become such an
important one within psychology, sociology, and education. Experts focus only on the many
influences that contribute to normal child development, but also to various factors that might
lead to psychological problems during childhood. Self-esteem, school, parenting, social
pressures, and other subjects are all of tremendous interest to child psychologists who strive
to help kids develop and grow in ways that are healthy and appropriate.(Wells et al., 1983)
Everyone wants their child to have healthy development, but it’s not always clear if a child’s
behaviour is a symptom of a normal stage in development or a sign of an abnormality. Child
psychologists can help you understand the difference. Understanding the normal and
abnormal psychological patterns of a child can help parents understand how to best
communicate and connect with their child, teach their child coping mechanisms for managing
emotions, and help their child progress and thrive in each new developmental stage.

Child psychologists can also identify abnormal behaviours early, help detect the root of
common behavioural issues such as learning issues, hyperactivity, or anxiety, and help
children work through early childhood trauma. They can also help to prevent, evaluate, and
diagnose developmental delays or abnormalities such as autism.

The following are just some of the major subjects that are essential to the study of child
psychology:

 Physical Development
 Cognitive Development
 Emotional (Social) Development
 Genetics
 Environmental Influences
 Personality Development
 Language
 Cognitive Developent
 Sexual Development
 Child psychologists may specialize in helping kids cope with
specific developmental concerns, or they may take a more general approach. In either
case, these professionals strive to help kids overcome potential problems and grow in
ways that lead to healthy outcomes. Child psychologists, for example, might look at
which child care settings and practices lead to the best psychological outcomes or they
might work with kids to help them develop growth mindsets.
Studying and understanding child growth and development are important parts of
teaching young children. No two children are alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive,
social, and emotional growth patterns. Even identical twins, who have the same genetic
makeup, are not exactly alike. They may differ in the way they respond to play, affection,
objects, and people in their environment. Think of the children you know. Each is
different from the others. Some always appear to be happy. Other children’s personalities
may not seem as pleasant. Some children are active. Still others are typically quiet. You
may even find that some children are easier to like. To help all these children, you need
to understand the sequence of their development. Knowledge of the areas of child
development is basic to guiding young children. Linked to this is the understanding of
healthy brain development. Healthy brain development results from healthy human
contact. Positive stimuli are a major factor in brain development. These stimuli begin at
birth. Therefore, it is vital for children to have loving caregivers. Young children need
dependable, trusting relationships. They thrive in environments that are predictable and
nurturing. Understanding theories about how people develop helps form your knowledge
base in caring for young children. This combined knowledge will help you plan
appropriate curriculum.

CHAPTER 2
Scientific History about Child psychology

Child psychology, also called child development, the study of the psychological processes of
children and, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, how they develop
from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differ from one child to the next.
The topic is sometimes grouped with infancy, adulthood, and aging under the category
of developmental psychology.
As a scientific discipline with a firm empirical basis, child study is of comparatively recent
origin. It was initiated in 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and
development of one of his own children, collecting the data much as if he had been studying
an unknown species. A similar, more elaborate study published by German
psychophysiologist William Preyer put forth the methods for a series of others. In 1891
American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall established the Pedagogical Seminary, a
periodical devoted to child psychology and pedagogy. During the early 20th century, the
development of intelligence tests and the establishment of child guidance clinics further
defined the field of child psychology.
A number of notable 20th-century psychologists—among them Sigmund Freud, Melanie
Klein, and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud—dealt with child development chiefly from the
psychoanalytic point of view. Perhaps the greatest direct influence on modern child
psychology was Jean Piaget of Switzerland. By means of direct observation and interaction,
Piaget developed a theory of the acquisition of understanding in children. He described the
various stages of learning in childhood and characterized children’s perceptions of
themselves and of the world at each stage of learning.
The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by
relatives, teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist’s direct observation of and
interviews with a child (or children), provide much material. In some cases a one-way
window or mirror is used so that children are free to interact with their environment or others
without knowing that they are being watched. Personality tests, intelligence tests, and
experimental methods have also proved useful in understanding child development.Despite
attempts to unify various theories of child development, the field remains dynamic, changing
as the fields of physiology and psychology develop.

CHAPTER 3
 Child growth and development in early childhood

Growth and development are complementary processes. Growth indicates the

quantitative changes in the body, that is height and weight, while development refers to
both the qualitative and quantitative changes, for example language acquisition.
Development can be defined as a ‘progressive series of orderly, coherent changes’.
All development takes place according to certain principles some of which are as
follows:
1. All growth and development follow an orderly sequence. A child can sit only when the
muscles of the back are ready to support the body.
2. Each child normally passes through a number of stages, each with its own essential
characteristics.
3. There are individual differences in development. Every child grows at his own pace.
You know that children start walking by the time they are one year old but you may have
also noticed that some are early and others are late.
4. Though the human being develops as a unified whole, each part of the body develops
at different rates. Basically there are two sequences in the rate of development.
(a) Cephalocaudal i.e. development proceeds from head to toe. The head and brain
develops first, then the torso, the neck etc.
(b) Proximodistal i.e. development proceeds from centre to extremeties. The child first
gains control over the spine, then arms, then fingers
5. Development is essentially the result of the interaction between maturation and
learning. While maturation is the ‘unfolding of characteristics potentially present in the
individual’s genetic endowment’, learning refers to the "relatively" enduring changes that
come about as a result of experience and practise.

Child Development
Development refers to change or growth that occurs in children. It starts with infancy and
continues to adulthood. By studying child development, you will form a profile of what
children can do at various ages. For instance, you will learn that two-year-old children
like to run. This means you should provide space for them to move freely. Likewise, you
will learn that infants explore with their senses, often mouthing objects. Knowing this,
you will need to make sure that all toys for infants are clean and safe. Different names are
used to describe young children at different ages. From birth through the first year,
children are called infants. Toddlers are children from age one up to the third birthday.
(Because of an awkward style of walking, the name toddler describes this age group.)
The term preschooler is often used to describe children ages three to six years of age. The
basic patterns of child development are a rather recent area of study. Researchers are
constantly discovering new information on how children grow, develop, and learn about
their world. Studying the basics of child development is just the beginning for you.
Throughout your career, you will need to update your knowledge of the latest research
and trends in this career field. Seminars, courses, professional articles, and conferences
will help you in this goal. Keep in mind that growing as a professional is a lifelong
process.
Patterns of development
Development essentially means change as a result of the complex interactions between
many processes - biological, social and cognitive.
1. Biological processes involve changes that are physical in nature. Our genetic heritage,
growth of body organs, acquisition of motor skills, hormonal changes at puberty, all reflect
the role of biological processes in development.
2. Cognitive processes involve changes in the thinking, intelligence and language of the
child. Perception, attention, understanding, problem solving, memorizing, imagination, all
reflect the cognitive processes in children’s development.
3. Social processes involve the changes in the child’s relationship with other people,
emotions and personality. The first smile of an infant, the development of attachment
between the mother and child, children learning to share, to assert, to take turns, to play with
others, all reflect the social processes in development. You must remember that all these
processes are intricately interwoven which means they constantly influence each other. The
cognitive processes promote socio-emotional processes and the biological processes
influence cognitive processes. For example, a sick child (biological process) is irritable and
cries frequently (socio-emotional). If unable to attend school regularly, the child lags behind
in studies (cognitive processes). Constant irritability also influences the relationship with
others (social processes).

Physical Development

Physical development refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills, or, in other
words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies. Physical development is one of the
many domains of infant and toddler development. It relates to the growth and skill
development of the body, including the brain, muscles, and senses. For example, babies learn
about the world as they develop their physical senses of sight, touch, smell, sound, and taste.
In fact, babies can hear well before they are born. Newborns like to look at faces and will
seek interesting things to look at very early on. An infant can recognize the mother’s smell
and the sound of her voice within days after birth. From birth, infants are aware of the world
around them, and the ability to grow, develop, and learn occurs quickly as infants begin to
explore through their senses.(Griffiths et al., 1990)

Growth in early childhood

Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year
and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The average 6 year old weighs about 46
pounds and is about 46 inches in height. The 3 year old is very similar to a toddler with a
large head, large stomach, short arms and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the
torso has lengthened and body proportions have become more like those of adults.
This growth rate is slower than that of infancy and is accompanied by a reduced appetite
between the ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to
the development of poor eating habits.

Motor Skill Development

Gross-motor skills and fine-motor skills are developed during infancy and toddlerhood.
Gross-motor skills involve the mastery of large muscle movements, as well as the building of
strength in muscle groups like the arms, legs, and core. Examples of such skills for infants
and toddlers include reaching, rolling, crawling, and climbing. Fine-motor skills involve
smaller, more precise movements, particularly movements of the hands and fingers, such as
grasping. As their bodies grow, infants and toddlers progressively strengthen their muscles
and become better able to control their bodies. Each new motor skill that is developed is the
result of an earlier skill and a contributor to new skills. Newborn infants do not have the
strength to hold up their heads, however as they learn and develop control of muscles, they
will be able to support their heads and move them from side to side to explore. Skill mastery
and development are also the result of brain growth and development. Consider an infant who
is starting to walk while holding on to couches and round-edged tables. This child must have
acquired strength in the large muscles and a certain level of control over body movement. At
the same time, the child also relies on vision to determine where to walk and what to cling
onto. As infants and toddlers grow, their bodies and minds become capable of simple and
mildly-complex movement and experiences.

Parents, teachers, and caregivers must stimulate toddlers and infants and encourage the
development of gross- and fine-motor skills. For example, you may stimulate physical
development by holding a toddler upright while moving each leg to imitate walking.
Eventually, the child will become accustomed to the balance and muscle movements that are
required to walk and be able to do it on his own. Infants and toddlers depend on their
caregivers to meet their needs for safety and security. When infants and toddlers receive
consistent, responsive care and attention from nurturing adults, they are able to establish a
sense of trust in the world. This sense of being loved and feeling safe is essential to stimulate
areas of development, including physical development. When they feel safe and secure,
infants and toddlers use their brains, muscles, and senses to explore the world around them.

Below you will find the typical progression of gross- and fine-motor skills in infants and
toddlers, respectively.
 Roll ➨ Scoot ➨ Crawl ➨ Walk ➨ March

Hands to Mouth → Reach Midline → Move Objects → Pincer Grasp → Scribble

Nutritional concerns

Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find this reduction in
appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. However, by
providing adequate, sound nutrition, and limiting sugary snacks and drinks, the caregiver can
be assured that 1) the child will not starve; and 2) the child will receive adequate
nutrition. Preschoolers can experience iron deficiencies if not given well-balanced nutrition
and if given too much milk. Calcium interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well.

Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this age. Young
children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may have trouble
eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and vegetables. Consider the
following advice about establishing eating patterns for years to come (Rice, F.P.,
1997). Notice that keeping mealtime pleasant, providing sound nutrition and not engaging in
power struggles over food are the main goals:

Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Patterns

1. Don’t try to force your child to eat or fight over food. Of course, it is impossible to force
someone to eat. But the real advice here is to avoid turning food into some kind of
ammunition during a fight. Do not teach your child to eat to or refuse to eat in order to gain
favor or express anger toward someone else.

2. Recognize that appetite varies. Children may eat well at one meal and have no appetite at
another. Rather than seeing this as a problem, it may help to realize that appetites do
vary. Continue to provide good nutrition, but do not worry excessively if the child does not
eat.

3. Keep it pleasant. This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere during
mealtime. Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing tensions. You do not
want the child to have painful memories of mealtimes together or have nervous stomachs and
problems eating and digesting food due to stress.

4. No short order chefs. While it is fine to prepare foods that children enjoy, preparing a
different meal for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation from
 others. Children probably do best when they are hungry and a meal is ready. Limiting snacks
rather than allowing children to “graze” continuously can help create an appetite for whatever
is being served.

5. Limit choices. If you give your preschool aged child choices, make sure that you give them
one or two specific choices rather than asking “What would you like for lunch?” If given an
open choice, children may change their minds or choose whatever their sibling does not
choose!

6. Serve balanced meals. This tip encourages caregivers to serve balanced meals. A box of
macaroni and cheese is not a balanced meal. Meals prepared at home tend to have
better nutritional value than fast food or frozen dinners. Prepared foods tend to be higher in
fat and sugar content as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh food
is often more costly and less profitable. However, preparing fresh food at home is not
costly. It does, however, require more activity. Preparing meals and including the children in
kitchen chores can provide a fun and memorable experience.

7. Don’t bribe. Bribing a child to eat vegetable by promising desert is not a good idea. For one
reason, the child will likely find a way to get the desert without eating the vegetables (by
whining or fidgeting, perhaps, until the caregiver gives in), and for another reason, because it
teaches the child that some foods are better than others. Children tend to naturally enjoy a
variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less desirable than others. A
child, for example, may learn the broccoli they have enjoyed is seen as yucky by others
unless it’s smothered in cheese sauce!

Brain Maturation

Brain weight: If you recall, the brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of
age. By age 6, it is at 95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of
dendrites continues to occur in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in
what the child is capable of doing. Greater development in the prefrontal cortex, the area of
the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think, strategizes, and controls emotion, makes
it increasingly possible to control emotional outbursts and to understand how to play
games. Consider 4 or 5 year old children and how they might approach a game of
soccer. Chances are every move would be a response to the commands of a coach standing
nearby calling out, “Run this way! Now, stop. Look at the ball. Kick the ball!” And when the
child is not being told what to do, he or she is likely to be looking at the clover on the ground
or a dog on the other side of the fence! Understanding the game, thinking ahead, and
coordinating movement improve with practice and myelination. Not being too upset over a
loss, hopefully, does as well.

Visual Pathways

Have you ever examined the drawings of young children? If you look closely, you can almost
see the development of visual pathways reflected in the way these images change as
pathways become more mature. Early scribbles and dots illustrate the use of simple motor
skills. No real connection is made between an image being visualized and what is created on
paper.

At age 3, the child begins to draw wispy creatures with heads and not much other
detail. Gradually pictures begin to have more detail and incorporate more parts of the
body. Arm buds become arms and faces take on noses, lips and eventually eyelashes. Look
for drawings that you or your child has created to see this fascinating trend. Here are some
examples of pictures drawn by my daughters from ages 2 to 7 years.

Growth in the hemispheres and corpus callosum: Between ages 3 and 6, the left
hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically. This side of the brain or hemisphere is typically
involved in language skills. The right hemisphere continues to grow throughout early
childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills such as recognizing shapes and
patterns. The corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of the brain undergoes a
growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 as well and results in improved coordination between
right and left hemisphere tasks. (I once saw a 5 year old hopping on one foot, rubbing his
stomach and patting his head all at the same time. I asked him what he was doing and he
replied, “My teacher said this would help my corpus callosum!” Apparently, his kindergarten
teacher had explained the process!)

Importance of Physical Growth and Development

Preparing infants and toddlers for school requires more than developing a set of skills; it
includes physical development and health. When an infant or toddler is healthy and happy, he
or she is more likely to engage in learning. Physical development and health can help prepare
infants and toddlers for activities that support language development, social skills, and other
areas of learning for school success.

While there is not one particular area of development that determines later school success,
research highlights the importance of supporting a strong foundation by promoting healthy
physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development. During infancy, foundations are
created and built upon as other areas of development progress, such as physical and motor
development. For example, young children will develop the abilities to balance, crawl, and
walk from their foundational reflex responses. When infants and toddlers are able to move on
their own, they are able to explore and contribute to their cognitive development in a way that
was not possible when they were unable to walk or crawl.

Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to the ways children reason (think),
develop language, solve problems, and gain knowledge. Identifying colors, completing a
maze, knowing the difference between one and many, and knowing how things are similar
are all examples of cognitive tasks. Children learn through their senses and through their
interactions with people and things in the world. They interact with the world through the
senses (see, touch, hear, smell, taste), and construct meaning and understanding of the world.
As children gain understanding and meaning of the world, their cognitive development can be
observed in the ways they play, use language, interact with others, and construct objects and
materials. As children grow and interact with their world, they go through various stages of
development. Although the stages are not precisely tied to a particular age, there are
characteristics that describe children at different ages.The medical understanding of
childhood cognitive development has greatly changed over the recent years. We now know
that even newborn babies are aware of their environment and are interested in it, even before
they have the language to express that.Cognitive development refers to the intellectual
learning and thought processes of a child. It includes the observation and understanding of
the world around them, language learning, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, how
the child uses their imagination, and how the child uses basic reasoning. All of these factors
are influenced by a child’s genetics and environment.
Sensorimotor Stage
The sensorimotor stage occurs in infancy from birth to about 12 months. Here, infants learn
about the world through their senses, looking around constantly, looking at faces of
caregivers, responding to smiling faces. Their eyes focus on bright colors and they respond to
sounds by looking toward the sound. During this time of sensory learning, infants also show
interest in light and movement, such as a mobile above the crib. Infants also begin to
recognize their own name in this stage.
Infants also learn through communication. Their initial communication is through crying
which is a general cry to bring attention to their needs. Later the cry changes and becomes
different and more specific to identify what the baby needs or wants. The cry develops into
gestures, and the beginning stages of language such as babbling, then monosyllables such as
“ba” and “da” and later to single words put together to make a meaningful sentence. You can
observe that infants also communicate through their motor actions. As they grow, they kick
and use their arms to reach for people and things that are interesting to them. They respond to
voices and seek to be picked up by reaching out. Infants make a very important learning
discovery - that through their actions of reaching, making sounds, or crying, they cause others
to respond in certain ways. It is very important that parents and other caregivers nurture and
respond to the infant’s actions, to hold, carry the infant, sing to the infant, play with the
infant, and meet his needs in other responsive and nurturing ways.

As infants continue to interact with their surroundings and make meaning out of their world,
they also learn about themselves, their own bodies. Their hands and toes become body
objects of interest. They suck on their hands and toes and may seem to be fascinated with
their own hands. During this stage of sensory learning, infants reach for, hit at, and grasp
objects that are within their reach, such as dangling jewelry and long hair. They also enjoy
toys that rattle and squeak and will put any and all things in the mouth. These are all sensory
ways that the infant learns; however, we must make sure that the objects are clean and safe
for the baby to explore.
As infants master new developments in the motor sequence (creeping and crawling), they
learn that they have more control over their world. They are no longer totally dependent on
an adult to meet some of their needs. For example, if an infant sees a toy on the floor, or his
bottle on a table within reach, he has the motor capacity to move toward it and reach for it.
The infant’s increased freedom to move and have toys and objects within reach is very
important. The task for adults, parents and other caregivers is to ensure that babies have a
safe and clean environment in which they can move about and interact.
Understanding the characteristics of cognitive development gives us knowledge and insights
into how children are developing, thinking, and learning. Principles of cognitive development
provide us with a basis for understanding how to encourage exploration, thinking, and
learning. As parents and caregivers, we can support cognitive development in infants and
young children by providing a variety of appropriate and stimulating materials and activities
that encourage curiosity, exploration, and opportunities for problem solving.

Object Permanence
Between the age of six to nine months the concept of object permanence develops. This is
the infant’s understanding that an object continues to exist even if it is out of the infant’s
sight. Prior to this time, the infant’s understanding is “out of sight, out of mind.” Objects
cease to exist when the infant does not see them. For example, when an infant plays with a
rattle or other toy and a blanket is placed over the rattle, the infant does not search for it
because it does not exist in the mind of the infant. When object permanence is developed, the
child begins to understand that the rattle is still there even though it is covered, out of sight.
The infant’s understanding of object permanence means that infants are developing
memory and goal oriented thinking. Searching under a blanket for a rattle means that the
child remembers that the rattle was there. It also means that the infant has a goal of finding
the rattle and takes action to find it. Infants during this time will give up searching within a
few seconds if they do not find the object.
Also important to object permanence is the understanding that other people exist all the time.
Children begin to understand that they can cry not just to get needs met but as a means of
calling parents or other caregivers. They know that even if a person is not within their reach
or their sight, the person still exists. The cry will call the person to them. Also, crying to call
a person is a sign that infants are learning to communicate.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget’s thinking has challenged teachers to focus on the ways children come to know as
opposed to what they know. His theory of cognitive development focuses on predictable
cognitive (thinking) stages. Piaget believed that thinking was different during each stage of
development. His theory explained mental operations. This includes how children perceive,
think, understand, and learn about their world. Piaget believed that children naturally attempt
to understand what they do not know. Knowledge is gathered gradually during active
involvement in real-life experiences. By physically handling objects, young children discover
that relationships exist between them. Terms Piaget used to describe these processes were
schemata, adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation. These processes occur during each
stage of development. Schemata are mental representations or concepts. As children receive
new information, they are constantly creating, modifying, organizing, and reorganizing
schemata. (Roberts & Brown, 1972)
Adaptation is a term Piaget used for children mentally organizing what they perceive in their
environment. When new information or experiences occur, children must adapt to include
this information in their thinking. If this new information does not fit with what children
already know, a state of imbalance occurs. To return to balance, adaptation occurs through
either assimilation or accommodation.
 Assimilation is the process of taking in new information and adding it to what the
child already knows.
 Accommodation is adjusting what is already known to fit the new information. This
process is how people organize their thoughts and develop intellectual structures.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are the same for all children. Most children proceed
through the stages in order. Each stage builds on a previous stage. However, the age at which
a child progresses through these stages is variable due to differences in maturation. Although
Piaget did not apply his theory directly to education, he did strongly influence children’s
early education. Many teaching strategies have evolved from his work. Caregivers and
teachers now know that learning is an active process. Providing children with stimulating,
handson activities helps them build knowledge. Piaget’s theory includes four stages:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal operations. The first three stages occur
during early childhood and the early school age years. The following paragraphs describe
these stages.(Rosskopf, 1971)

Piaget’s Stages of Development

The sensorimotor stage takes place between birth and two years of age. Infants use all
their senses to explore and learn. In this way, sensory experiences and motor
development promote cognitive development. Babies’ physical actions, such as
sucking, grasping, and hitting, help them learn about their surroundings. Movements
are random at first. Gradually they become intentional as behaviors are repeated.
Children begin to learn that objects still exist even when they are out of sight. This is
known as object permanence. Through exploration and exposure to new experiences,
new concepts are learned. The preoperational stage takes place between ages two and
seven.
Children during this stage are very egocentric. This means that they assume others see the
world the same way they do. Children do not yet have the ability to see others’ points of
view. During this time, representation skills are learned. These skills include language,
symbolic play, and drawing. Children learn to use symbols and internal images, but their
thinking is illogical. It is very different from that of adults. Children begin to understand that
changing the physical appearance of something does not change the amount of it. They are
able to recognize the difference between size and volume. For example, a ball of clay can be
stretched into a long rope. Even if the physical appearance changes, the amount of the object
does not change. This skill is called conservation. At this stage, children can also classify
groups of objects and put objects in a series in order. (Grantham-McGregor & Ani, 2001)
During the ages of seven to eleven years, concrete operations begin. Children develop
the capacity to think systematically, but only when they can refer to actual objects and
use hands-on activities. Then they begin to internalize some tasks. This means they no
longer need to depend on what is seen. They become capable of reversing operations.
For example, they understand that 3 + 1 is the same as 1 + 3. When real situations are
presented, they are beginning to understand others’ points of view. The fourth stage,
formal operations, takes place from eleven years of age to adulthood (the age range
you are in right now). According to Piaget, young people develop the capacity to
think in purely abstract ways. They no longer need concrete examples. Problem
solving and reasoning are key skills developed during this stage.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Both Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky believed that children build knowledge through
experiences. Piaget believed this happened through exploration with handson
activities. Vygotsky, on the other hand, believed that children learn through social and
cultural experiences. Interactions with peers and adults help children in this process.
While interacting with others, children learn the customs, values, beliefs, and
language of their culture. For this reason, families and teachers should provide plenty
of social interaction for young children.
 Vygotsky believed language is an important tool for thought and plays a key role in
cognitive development. He introduced the term private speech, or self-talk. This refers to
when children “think out loud.” After learning language, children engage in this self-talk to
help guide their activity and develop their thinking. Generally, self-talk continues until
children reach school age. One of Vygotsky’s most important contributions was the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). This concept presents learning as a scale. One end of the scale
or “zone” includes the tasks that are within the child’s current developmental level. The other
end of the scale includes tasks too difficult for children to accomplish, even with help. In the
middle are the tasks children cannot accomplish alone. These are achieved with help from
another knowledgeable peer or adult. The term used for this assistance is scaffolding. Just as
a painter needs a structure on which to stand and paint a building, scaffolding provides the
structure for learning to occur. For example, a teacher could scaffold a child’s learning while
constructing a puzzle. The teacher might demonstrate how a piece fits or provide clues
regarding color, shape, or size. The “zone” is constantly changing. In contrast to Piaget,
Vygotsky believed that learning was not limited by stage or maturation. Children move
forward in their cognitive development with the right social interaction and guided learning.
Emotional (Social) Development
Emotional and social development are deeply intertwined. Emotional development refers to
how the child feels, understands, and expresses their emotions. Emotional development is
expressed in very young children through the expression of basic emotions like fear, joy,
anger, and sadness. As the child develops, more complex emotions such as confidence, hope,
guilt, and pride emerge. Emotional development also includes a child’s ability to feel and
understand the emotions of other people through empathy. Learning to regulate and express
emotions appropriately is difficult for many children. Helping children understand their
emotions early can have a powerful impact on current and future emotional development. A
Child Psychologist can help your child understand and express their emotions in a healthy,
positive way. The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional
development. Learning to relate to others is social development. Emotional and social
development are often described and grouped together because they are closely interrelated
growth patterns. Feelings of trust, fear, confidence, pride, friendship, and humor are all part
of social-emotional development. Other emotional traits are self concept and self esteem.
Learning to trust and show affection to others is a part of social-emotional development. The
child’s relationship to a trusting and caring adult is a foundation of emotional development
and personality development. Furthermore, when a child has been neglected, rejected, and
does not feel secure, he has difficulty developing skills to socialize with others.Emotional
development highly informs social development. This is true because the way a child feels,
understands, and expresses their feelings has a direct impact on how they interact with other
people. Social development is about how the child develops the values, awareness, and social
skills necessary to relate to the people around them; their parents, peers, authority figures,
and animals. A child’s early relationships can have a huge impact on their development of
age-appropriate social skills. (Perry, 1999)

Sexual Development

Sexual growth and development begins already in early childhood, as part of the process of
maturing into adulthood. According to the stage model of sexual development, human sexual
development occurs by advancing from one stage to another, combining physical,
psychological, social, intellectual and emotional development. At each stage, the child
acquires knowledge and learns skills for sexual development into adulthood. The
development is based on the child's and adolescent's feelings related to sexuality and gaining
of independence. Often the stages of development do not follow each other sequentially;
instead, the child might skip some stages or return back to lower stages if not yet ready to
proceed.

Sexual growth is part of a child's normal development. Such growth involves curiosity
towards sexuality and sexual play, which are most common in preschool children. Touching
oneself and masturbation are also quite common among children. According to some
estimates, at least a fifth of preschool children engage in such behaviours in front of adults. A
study conducted in day care centres in Finland found that nearly a half of children "play
doctor", which involves showing one's genitals to others.

Sexual behaviour in children might surface or increase in connection with other life crises,
such as the divorce of parents, death of a close family member or violence in the family. This
has been explained by children reacting to crises with anxiety, which in turn might manifest
itself as increasingly touching oneself or seeking physical proximity. Touching oneself and
masturbation are a natural source of pleasure for the child and help him or her to calm down.
This behaviour might be most common for example when going to sleep.

Sexuality is connected to culture, religion and family norms .The culture and norms within
the family and society also shape the child's behaviour when it comes to sexuality. Finnish
culture is generally more tolerant towards nudity, and the nudity of children in particular,
than many other countries. When comparing American and Northern European studies, it can
be noted that the more open European attitude towards nudity and sexuality is also reflected
in the children's behaviour: European children show more sexual behaviour in their play than
American children of the same age.

From early on, children are taught not to engage in sexual behaviours in front of others.
However, children's interest in sexuality also varies significantly within countries. This
means there are no clear common cultural "norms", but the children's behaviour is influenced
by the families' own culture in addition to the society's norms. For example in blended
families, the various attitudes towards sexuality and nudity can sometimes be a source of
confusion. Increasing multiculturality also brings with it a greater variation in family cultures.

Families have very different practices with respect to what to call the genitals (and whether
they can be talked about at all), whether nudity, bathing and sleeping in the same bed is
acceptable in the family, and in what way and how much other family members are touched
(for example by hugging). According to studies, parents who have a more open attitude
towards sleeping in the same bed, bathing together and nudity within the family, see more
sexual behaviour in their children aged between 2 and 12. Adults see only a part of children's
sexual behaviours.Studies have also looked into how adults remember their own sexual play
in childhood. It has been discovered that a large share of adults remember having engaged in
sexual play that involved the touching of genitals, for example. Children become conscious
of the private nature of sexuality and the related play at an early age and learn to keep their
play secret from adults. Adults therefore notice only a part of their children's sexual
behaviour.

According to studies, conceptions of normal sexual behaviour are somewhat influenced by

gender. Women tend to see sexual behaviour as more unusual than men. It has also been
noted that girls attending day care centres tend to adjust their behaviour in accordance with
the place and its expectations more than boys of the same age. While girls exhibit more
visible sexual behaviour at home than in day care centres, boys' behaviour is not as clearly
dependent on the environment.

Factors affecting growth and development

(i) Heredity - It is the process by which the features and characteristics are passed from
parents to the child before the child is born. Thus fea tures like the colour of the skin
and eyes, the height, body build, intellect and talents, etc., are all fixed and no one
can change them beyond a limit.
(ii) Prenatal environment - This is the environment of the foetus in the womb. If the
mother gets poor nutrition, is emotionally upset or smokes, drinks, or takes some
medicine or suffers from certain diseases, the growth of the child can be adversely
affected.
(iii) Nutrition - Proper nutrition is essential for the healthy development of the child. A
malnourished child’s growth may be retarded or slow.
(iv) Intelligence - Higher intelligence is associated with faster development while lower
intelligence is associated with retardation in various aspects of development.
(v) Emotional climate of home - If there is a lot of discord/fights at home or the child is
not given enough love and attention or there is physical/ mental abuse of the child,
then the child’s development is adversely affected.
(vi) Health of the child - If the child frequently falls sick, suffers from some disorder, is
disabled or has disturbed endocrine functioning, the development is likely to suffer.
(vii) Level of stimulation - The amount of stimulation the environment provides to the
child i.e., the opportunities for exploration of environment, opportunities of
interaction with other people, etc., all influnence the rate of development.
(viii) Socio-economic status - It also influences the development by deciding the kind of
nutrition, stimulation, facilities, opportunities, genetic endowment the child gets.
(ix) Sex - All children follow the same sequence of development. However, certain
skills are faster in girls than in boys and some other skills are faster in boys than
girls. For example, language acquisition is faster in girls and skills like jumping
catching, throwing are faster in boys. Sex is also a factor that decides the potential of
a child in physical development - boys grow up to be taller, heavier and more
muscular than girls.
 WHO about child growth and development
WHO is coordinating an international effort to develop child growth
standards that will replace the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS)/WHO
reference for infants and young children (age 0-5 years).

Phase 1 of the project consisted in the evaluation of current anthropometric references that
brought to light important biological and technical deficiencies in the NCHS/WHO
reference. This led to the development of a plan for new standards that would document
how children should grow in all countries rather than merely describing how they grew at
a particular time and place.

Phase 2, the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study, focused on the collection of
growth and related data from approximately 8 500 children in six countries (Brazil,
Ghana, India, Norway, Oman and the United States of America). This phase ended in
October 2003.

Phase 3 (data analysis and production of the proposed standards) began in 2002. At the
end of Phase 3 the number of growth standards will have expanded to 12 (from the present
set of three), and these will be linked to references for attained motor development
milestones. Plans have been initiated for phase 4.

Phase 4 (development of training materials, implementation of training programmes, and

worldwide dissemination of the new standards).
These standards will establish the breastfed infant as the biological norm for growth. The
new anthropometric tools will provide more accurate estimates of malnutrition and permit
identification of children at risk, rather than waiting to diagnose malnutrition after a static
point is attained. Linking motor development to anthropometric standards will underscore
the important message that normal physical growth is an essential but, by itself,
insufficient element of normal development.

At present, 99 countries are using the NCHS/WHO growth reference. The goal is for the
majority of these countries to have adopted the new standards by 2010. The shift will be
fully exploited to reinforce the linking of growth assessment and growth promotion
activities in support of the Millennium Development Goals.

Moreover, a growth standard based on a worldwide sample and recognition that

environmental differences – not genetic endowment – are the principal determinants of
disparities in child growth should contribute to fulfilment of accepted human rights
principles, notably those stipulated in the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

The work accomplished since 1990 when the project began is the product of close
collaboration between WHO and the United Nations University, UNICEF, governments
and other partners (e.g., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Hundreds of
scientists have contributed generously to all aspects of the project to date, and the
partnership base will continue to expand in the challenging phases ahead.