COMPUTER VISION BASED STRUCTURAL

IDENTIFICATION FOR BUILDINGS

Thesis submitted to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur

In partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree of

Master of Technology
In
Computer Aided Structural Engineering

Submitted by
Santosh Gyanba Mirase

Under the guidance of

Nimesh Patankar

Department of Civil Engineering

Wainganga College of Engineering and

Management, Nagpur

2023-2024

Declaration
i
 We, hereby declare that the dissertation titled “computer vision based
structural identification for buildings” submitted herein has been carried out by us
in the Department of Civil Engineering of Wainganga College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur. The work is original and has not been submitted earlier as a
whole or in part for the award of any degree / diploma at this or any other Institution /
University.
We also hereby assign to Wainganga College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur all rights under copyright that may exist in and to the above
work and any revised or expanded derivatives works based on the work as mentioned.
Other work copied from references, manuals etc. are disclaimed.

SANTOSH G. MIRASE

Date:

ii
 Certificate

The thesis titled “computer vision based structural identification for

buildings” submitted by Santosh Gyanba Mirase for the award of degree of Master
in Technology in Computer Aided Structural Engineering, has been carried out under
my supervision at the Department of Civil Engineering of Wainganga College of
Engineering and Management, Nagpur. The work is comprehensive, complete and fit
for evaluation.

Dr. Snehal Abhyankar

Head
Department of Civil Engineering
WCEM, Nagpur

External Examiner

III
 INDEX

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
1.1 Inspection and Monitoring for Infrastructure Assessment 4
1.2 Vision-Based Infrastructure Assessment 5
1.3 Assistive Technology 5
1.4 Objective 6

1.5 Problem Statement 6

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Survey 9
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY
3.1 Methodology 21
3.2 Generating synthetic labeled data using photorealistic physics based graphics
model 23
CHAPTER 4 – TOOLS AND PLATFORM
4.1 OpenCV 26
4.2 TensorFlow 26
4.3 MATLAB 26
4.4 Pix4D 26
4.5 Drone Deploy 27
4.6 Autodesk ReCap 27
4.7 Open Drone Map 27
CHAPTER 5 - DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 Data collection 29
5.2 Image processing 29
5.3 Feature detection 29
5.4 Segmentation 29
5.5 3D reconstruction 29
5.6 Visualization 30
CHAPTER 6 - RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
6.1 Result and analysis 32
CHAPTER 7 - CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
7.1 Conclusion 36
IV
7.2 Future Scope 37

Abstract

With the increasing demand for improving the safety and resilience of
buildings in urban areas, there has been a growing interest in developing computer
vision-based approaches for structural identification of buildings. These approaches
utilize cameras or drones to capture images or videos of buildings for automated
identification of their structural properties, such as size, shape, and construction
materials. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-
art computer vision-based approaches for building structural identification. It covers
both traditional computer vision techniques and deep learning-based approaches, as
well as their applications, advantages, limitations, and challenges. The review also
includes performance evaluations of these approaches on real-world datasets. The
paper identifies several potential research directions for future development of
computer vision-based building structural identification. One of the most important is
the need to develop more accurate and robust algorithms that can handle diverse
building types, environmental conditions, and imaging modalities. Another important
direction is to integrate multi-modal data sources such as thermal imaging, LiDAR,
and acoustic sensors to enhance the accuracy and reliability of the identification
process. In addition, the paper highlights the importance of adopting explainable AI
techniques to improve the transparency and interpretability of the identification
results. Overall, the review concludes that computer vision-based approaches have a
significant potential to enhance the safety and resilience of buildings in urban areas by
providing more accurate, efficient, and cost-effective methods for identifying their
structural properties. However, further research is needed to address the challenges
and limitations of these approaches and to develop more advanced and effective
solutions.

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure.
Name of Figure Page No
No
Figure 1 Process of deformation monitoring 22
based on computer vision
Figure 2 Fully convolutional neural networks 23
(FCNs)
Figure 3 Framework for physics – based 24
graphics generation for automated
assessment using deep learning.

VI
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

Sr. No Acronym Full Form

Ad hoc on Distance
1 AODV
Vector
Structural health
2 SHM
monitoring
linear variable
3 LVDT differential
transformers
global positioning
4 GPS
system
unmanned aerial
5 UAV
vehicles
Convolutional Neural
6 CNN
Networks
building information
7 BIM
modeling
Radio frequency
8 RFID
identification technology
Generative Adversarial
9 GAN
Network
Variational Auto
10 VAE
Encoder
Recurrent Neural
11 RNN
Networks

VII
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
1. Introduction
Bridges, tunnels, and trains are a few examples of the transportation infrastructure
systems that are crucial for national social production and growth. These
transportation infrastructures are put to the test in two main ways due to the
phenomenal growth of social productivity. In contrast, civil engineering structures,
including bridges, are subjected to a variety of external loads or disasters (such as fire
and earthquakes) during their service life, which in turn shortens the service life of the
structures. On the one hand, the tonnage and number of existing means of
transportation may exceed the design load-carrying capacity. Structural health
monitoring (SHM) has developed over the past two decades with the primary
objective of gathering the dynamic response of structures using sensors and then
reporting the data to assess the performance of the structures. The need for labor-
intensive and costly sensor network and data collecting system installation and
maintenance prevents their widespread use in actual engineering structures [1-2].
Currently, the sensors used for SHM can be broadly categorized as either contact
(such as linear variable differential transformers (LVDT), optical fibre sensors [3],
accelerometers, strain gauges, etc.) or non-contact (such as global positioning systems
(GPS) [4], laser barometers [5], total stations, and level computer vision–based
sensors). The GPS sensor is one of the available non-contact sensors that is simple to
instal, but it has a limited measurement precision (often between 5 and 10 mm) and
sample frequency (less than 20 Hz).The system composition, target tracking
algorithms, environmental influencing elements, and recent successes of computer
vision-based investigations in field environments are reviewed in this study. The
monitoring process, camera calibration techniques, feature extraction, and various
target tracking algorithms.

Computer vision-based structural identification for buildings refers to the use of

computer vision techniques to automatically analyze and assess the structural integrity
of buildings. It involves processing visual data from various sources, such as cameras,
sensors, and drones, to detect and measure changes in a building's physical attributes,
such as cracks, deformations, and vibrations. This technology has become
increasingly important in recent years, as it offers a non-destructive and cost-effective
alternative to traditional methods of structural assessment, such as physical
inspections and testing. With computer vision-based techniques, engineers and

2
architects can obtain accurate and reliable data on a building's condition, which can
help them to identify potential safety hazards, plan maintenance and repair activities,
and optimize building performance [6]. Some of the key applications of computer
vision-based structural identification include earthquake damage assessment,
structural health monitoring, and quality control during construction. By leveraging
the power of computer vision, researchers and practitioners can unlock new insights
into the behavior and performance of buildings, leading to safer, more sustainable,
and more resilient structures.

Traditional techniques to assess the condition of civil infrastructure, including

buildings, typically involve visual inspection by trained inspectors, combined with
relevant decision-making criteria. These techniques rely on the expertise of human
inspectors to detect and diagnose issues such as cracks, deformations, and other signs
of deterioration. However, these methods are often subjective and can be time-
consuming and expensive. Moreover, the traditional techniques often require
inspectors to physically access the structure, which can pose safety risks and may not
be feasible in some situations, such as tall or complex buildings [7]. Additionally,
these techniques can be limited by the level of expertise of the inspectors and may not
capture subtle changes in the structure's condition. With the advancements in
computer vision technology, computer vision-based structural identification provides
an alternative approach to traditional techniques. It uses machine learning algorithms
and computer vision techniques to automatically detect and diagnose issues in
buildings without the need for human intervention. This approach can significantly
reduce the time and cost involved in assessing a building's structural integrity and can
provide more accurate and objective results. Computer vision-based structural
identification can also help to address some of the limitations of traditional methods,
such as the ability to monitor hard-to-reach areas or track changes over time. By
integrating computer vision with other sensing technologies, such as sensors and
drones, researchers and practitioners can develop more comprehensive and efficient
methods for assessing the condition of buildings and other civil infrastructure [8].
Computer vision techniques have been recognized in the civil engineering field as a
key component of improved inspection and monitoring of buildings and other civil
infrastructure. These techniques can be used to automatically process large amounts
of visual data, enabling more efficient and accurate assessments of a structure's
condition. One of the key benefits of computer vision-based structural identification is
3
its ability to detect and analyze changes in a building's physical attributes over time.
This allows engineers and architects to monitor the building's health and performance
and detect potential safety hazards before they become critical issues.

Moreover, computer vision-based approaches, used in conjunction with cameras

and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), offer the potential for rapid and automated
inspection and monitoring for civil infrastructure condition assessment, including
buildings [9]. By using UAVs equipped with cameras and sensors, computer vision
techniques can be employed to capture and process visual data in real-time, providing
a comprehensive and timely assessment of a building's structural integrity. This
approach can significantly reduce the time and cost involved in assessing a building's
condition, particularly in hard-to-reach areas or areas with limited access. UAVs can
easily access these areas and capture high-quality visual data, which can be processed
using computer vision algorithms to identify potential issues. Furthermore, the use of
computer vision-based techniques can improve the accuracy and reliability of the
inspection process. By analysing visual data using machine learning algorithms,
computer vision can identify and diagnose subtle changes in a structure's condition
that may be missed by human inspectors.

1.1 Inspection and Monitoring for Infrastructure Assessment

Monitoring can also be used to assess the condition of civil infrastructure by

measuring physical quantities such as accelerations, strains, and displacements.
However, these methods often have limited spatial resolution or require the
installation of dense sensor arrays, which can be expensive and time-consuming.
Furthermore, once installed, access to the sensors is often limited, making regular
system maintenance challenging. To address these challenges, there is a need for
improved inspection and monitoring approaches that are less interventionist, less
expensive, and provide higher spatial resolution [10]. Computer vision-based
approaches, in conjunction with cameras and UAVs, have emerged as a promising
solution for rapid and automated inspection and monitoring of civil infrastructure. By
leveraging the power of machine learning algorithms, computer vision can analyze
large amounts of visual data in real-time, providing a comprehensive and timely
assessment of a structure's condition.

4
This approach can significantly reduce the time and cost involved in assessing a
building's condition, particularly in hard-to-reach areas or areas with limited access.
Civil infrastructure condition assessment is a crucial process that involves the
inspection and/or monitoring of structures to ensure their safety, reliability, and
longevity. Traditional techniques for assessing the condition of civil infrastructure
often rely on visual inspection by trained inspectors, which can be time-consuming,
laborious, expensive, and dangerous. This approach can be particularly challenging in
hard-to-reach areas or areas with limited access, where inspection may be impossible
or impractical.

1.2 Vision-Based Infrastructure Assessment

Vision-based infrastructure assessment is a powerful tool that uses cameras, drones,

and other imaging devices to capture images and videos of civil infrastructure, such as
bridges, roads, and buildings. The captured data is then analysed using advanced
computer vision techniques and machine learning algorithms to detect anomalies or
defects that may be difficult to identify with the naked eye. Vision-based approaches
offer many benefits over traditional inspection and assessment methods, including
increased accuracy, speed, and safety [11]. They also allow for remote assessments,
reducing the need for physical access to the infrastructure, which can be particularly
useful for hard-to-reach or hazardous locations. Moreover, vision-based approaches
can provide real-time monitoring of infrastructure conditions, enabling early detection
of potential problems and allowing for timely repairs or maintenance.

1.3 Assistive Technology

Assistive technology has the potential to play a significant role in improving the
accessibility and usability of these approaches for individuals with disabilities. For
instance, individuals with visual impairments may face challenges in analysing the
images or videos of buildings used in computer vision-based approaches. The use of
assistive technologies such as screen readers, tactile maps, and audio descriptions
could help to provide access to the information contained in these images or videos.

5
Screen readers can read the text in the images, while tactile maps can provide a three-
dimensional representation of the building that can be felt. Audio descriptions can
provide additional auditory information to complement the visual information in the
images or videos.
Moreover, assistive technologies such as wearable cameras or drones can be
utilized to capture images or videos of buildings from the perspective of individuals
with mobility impairments or in hard-to-reach areas, thus enhancing the availability
and diversity of data sources for computer vision-based approaches [12]. Wearable
cameras can be attached to a user's clothing or equipment to capture images or videos
from their point of view, while drones can capture images or videos from different
angles and perspectives. These additional data sources can provide more information
about the building's structural properties, which could lead to more accurate
identification and assessment of its condition.

1.4 OBJECTIVE:
 Computer vision-based approaches for structural identification of buildings
use images or videos of buildings captured by cameras or drones to
automatically identify their structural properties.
 The article provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art computer
vision-based approaches for building structural identification, covering both
traditional computer vision techniques and deep learning-based approaches.
 The review includes performance evaluations of these approaches on real-
world datasets.
 The article identifies several potential research directions for future
development of computer vision-based building structural identification, such
as developing more accurate and robust algorithms, integrating multi-modal
data sources, and adopting explainable AI techniques.

1.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT

 There is an increasing need for improving the safety and resilience of

buildings in urban areas.
 Traditional methods of structural identification for buildings are time-
consuming, costly, and often require invasive procedures.

6
 There is a growing interest in developing computer vision-based approaches
for automated identification of the structural properties of buildings.
 The objective of computer vision-based approaches is to provide more
accurate, efficient, and cost-effective methods for identifying the structural
properties of buildings.

7
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

8
2.1 Literature Review
Computer vision-based structural identification for buildings is an emerging
field of research that aims to use computer vision techniques to identify the structural
properties of buildings. Several studies have proposed novel approaches for this,
including using video data and deep learning techniques to classify the structural
properties, and using convolutional neural networks to extract visual features from
images of buildings. Additionally, some studies have explored using computer vision
for damage detection and localization in buildings. These studies demonstrate the
potential of computer vision in identifying structural properties of buildings and
provide valuable insights into the challenges and future directions for this field.

Ruijie Quan, et al. Traditional They designed the The part-aware

“Auto-ReID: ReID techniques network to focus network was found
Searching for a Part- may struggle to on different body to outperform
Aware ConvNet for match parts of individuals traditional CNN-
Person Re- individuals who and learn based approaches
Identification” [13]. are partially distinctive features on several
occluded or that can be used for benchmark
have different ReID. The network datasets, including
clothing or body is trained on a large Market-1501,
orientations. dataset of labeled DukeMTMC-
This problem images, with a ReID, and
necessitates the focus on part- CUHK03. The
development of awareness and network was also
more robustness to found to be robust
sophisticated variations in to variations in
ReID lighting and camera lighting and camera
techniques. angles. angles, and able to
accurately match
individuals who
were partially
occluded or had
different clothing
9
 or body
orientations.
Xiangyang Xue, et al. Image They designed the Multi-Label Multi-
“Correlative Multi- annotation is the algorithm to Instance Image
Label Multi-Instance difficulty in simultaneously Annotation show
Image Annotation” accurately identify and label that the algorithm
[14]. annotating multiple objects can accurately and
images with within an image, efficiently annotate
multiple labels while also taking images with
and instances. into account the multiple labels and
correlations instances.
between labels and
instances. The
algorithm is trained
on a large dataset
of labeled images,
with a focus on
improving
accuracy and
efficiency in multi-
label, multi-
instance
annotation.
Ling di, et al. Building They designed the The technique was
“comparative analysis analysis is the technology to found to
of homologous difficulty in capture high- outperform
buildings using rang accurately resolution 3D traditional building
imaging” [15]. comparing images of analysis techniques
homologous buildings, allowing on several
buildings, for detailed benchmark
particularly in analysis of similar datasets, including
cases where the features across datasets of historic
buildings have buildings. The buildings and
undergone technique involves modern
modifications or capturing range architecture. The
10
 have different images of technique was also
architectural homologous found to be robust
styles buildings and to variations in
performing a distance and angle,
comparative and able to
analysis of the accurately identify
images using and compare
advanced computer similar features
vision algorithms. across buildings
with different
architectural styles.
Tao Liu, et al. Structural They suggested Subpixel
“Computer Vision- displacement Subpixel Localization
Based Structural monitoring and Localization Refinement show
Displacement modal Refinement that that the computer
Monitoring and identification is involves the use of vision technique
Modal Identification the difficulty in computer vision can accurately
with Subpixel accurately algorithms for measure small-
Localization measuring small structural scale displacements
Refinement” [16]. displacements monitoring and and identify modal
and identifying modal properties with
modal properties identification. The high accuracy.
using traditional technique involves
sensors and the use of high-
measurement speed cameras to
techniques. capture images of
the structure under
dynamic loading
conditions.
Athanasios The need for The technique used The result was an
Voulodimos, et al. efficient and was deep learning, overview of the
“Deep Learning for accurate which involves current state of the
Computer Vision: A methods for training artificial field, including the
Brief Review” [17]. image neural networks advantages and
recognition and with large amounts limitations of deep
11
 analysis. of data to enable learning
them to recognize approaches in
patterns and computer vision
features in images. applications.
Diego Lozano, et al. The lack of The technique The result was a
“Design of Flexible flexibility in employed involved flexible structural
Structural System for traditional using parametric system that can be
Building building modeling tools and customized to meet
Customization” [18]. structural computational the specific design
systems, which optimization requirements of a
makes it algorithms to building project.
difficult to generate a
accommodate structural system
changes in that can
building design accommodate
and varying building
customization. configurations.
Yizhong Zhang, et al. The design and The technique used . The result showed
“Deep Learning implementation involved that the proposed
Distributed of a deep developing a architecture
Architecture Design learning distributed deep achieved a higher
Implementation for distributed learning level of accuracy
Computer Vision” architecture was architecture that and efficiency in
[19]. needed for utilized multiple object detection
computer vision. GPUs for training and classification
and inference. tasks compared to
traditional single
GPU models.
Felipe Muñoz-La The lack of clear The technique The result was a
Rivera, et al. guidance on involved a comprehensive
“Methodology for how to systematic review methodology for
Building Information effectively of existing implementing BIM
Modeling (BIM) implement BIM literature, a survey in SECs that
Implementation in in SECs. of SECs, and the included
Structural development of a guidelines,
12
Engineering practical recommendations,
Companies (SECs)” implementation and a step-by-step
[20]. framework. implementation
process.
Li Zhang, et al. Traditional The study The results
“Complex Deep computer vision employed deep demonstrated
Learning and techniques were learning and improved accuracy
Evolutionary limited in evolutionary and efficiency in
Computing Models in handling computing object recognition,
Computer Vision” complex and techniques to image
[21]. large-scale develop complex classification, and
datasets, leading models for other computer
to the need for computer vision vision tasks.
more advanced applications.
models.
Lianchao Jin, et al. Generative The technique The result is a
“Generative Adversarial involved training a GAN that can be
Adversarial Network Network (GAN) generator and a used for image
Technologies and technologies and discriminator synthesis, image
Applications in applications network to learn translation, and
Computer Vision” were used in and produce image editing,
[22]. computer vision. realistic images. among other
The discriminator applications.
network provides
feedback to the
generator network
on the realism of
the generated
images, and the
generator network
adjusts
accordingly.
Yingbo Ji, et al. The quality of An interpretive The results
“Factors Influencing sleeve grouting structural modeling provided insights
Sleeve Grouting for prefabricated approach was used into the factors that
13
Quality for buildings was as the technique to require attention to
Prefabricated influenced by analyze and improve the quality
Building: An various factors. prioritize the of sleeve grouting
Interpretive Structural factors. The study for prefabricated
Modeling Approach” identified six buildings.
[23]. factors that
significantly
influenced sleeve
grouting quality
and revealed their
interrelationships.
Hiromichi Hagihara, The need for a The technique used The results showed
et al. “Computer computer involved capturing that the computer
Vision-Based vision-based video recordings of vision-based
Approach for approach to patients and using approach provided
Quantifying quantify the computer vision more objective and
Occupational qualitative algorithms to accurate
Therapists’ evaluations of extract postural measurements
Qualitative postural control data for analysis. compared to
Evaluations of made by traditional
Postural Control” occupational qualitative
[24]. therapists. evaluations,
allowing for better
assessment and
treatment planning
for patients with
postural control
issues.
Xudong Jian, et al. Traditional A computer vision The results showed
“Traffic Sensing traffic algorithm was used that the proposed
Methodology monitoring to detect and track methodology
Combining Influence methods for the vehicles on the provided accurate
Line Theory girder bridges bridge. The and reliable traffic
And Computer Vision were not influence line and load monitoring for
Techniques for Girder accurate the vehicle tracking girder bridges, with
14
Bridges” [25]. enough, and a data were then an average error
new combined to rate of less than
methodology calculate the actual 5%. This approach
was proposed. traffic load on the has the potential to
bridge. improve bridge
safety and
maintenance by
providing real-time
monitoring of the
bridge's structural
health.
Houyao Zhu, et al. An issue related The technique used The result was
“Fuzzy Adaptive to uncertain was fuzzy adaptive improved control
Compensation building compensation performance and
Control for Uncertain structural control with robustness for
Building systems that sliding-mode uncertain building
Structural Systems by necessitated the technology. structural systems.
Sliding-Mode use of fuzzy
Technology” [26]. adaptive
compensation
control through
sliding-mode
technology.
Tatjana Vilutiene, et The initial A quantitative The study also
al. “Building investment and method for identified several
Information Modeling training required analyzing research knowledge gaps,
(BIM) for Structural for adopting output and impact including the need
Engineering: BIM technology was used to for research on the
A Bibliometric can be a identify and integration of BIM
Analysis of the significant analyze relevant with other
Literature” [27]. barrier for publications. Data technologies such
smaller firms or from the Web of as artificial
those with Science database intelligence and the
limited and the VOSviewer internet of things.
resources. software were used
15
 to visualize and
analyze publication
trends, co-
authorship patterns,
and citation
networks.

The need for efficient small networks for lightweight tasks in computer vision, and a
pruning method based on feature representation was proposed as a solution by Yisu Ge
et al. [28]. The technique involved using a feature selection algorithm to identify
important features and then pruning the network based on those features. The result was
a small network that achieved similar performance to larger networks while using
significantly fewer resources.

Simulation system was needed for building structures based on BIM and computer
models. The technique used by Bao Zhu et al. [29] to integrate BIM technology and
computer models for building structure simulation. The result was a simulation system
that accurately represented the behavior of the building structure under different loads
and scenarios. The system can be used for structural design optimization and to evaluate
the safety of the building structure during construction and operation.

Real-time portable EEG artifact annotation in a semiconstrained environment was

addressed using an intelligent method based on computer vision. The technique
involved training a deep convolutional neural network to recognize various EEG
artifacts introduced by Zuesheng Qian et al. [30], which was then integrated with a real-
time EEG acquisition system. The result was a portable and automated system that
could accurately detect and annotate EEG artifacts in real-time, reducing the need for
manual annotation and improving the efficiency of EEG data analysis.

The need for a more efficient and accurate approach to recognizing suspicious activities
in smart cities. The technique used by Amjad Rehman et al. [31] was an internet-of-
things-based multimodal approach that combined computer vision with other sensors
and data sources. A neural network algorithm was employed to optimize positioning
and local obstacle avoidance. The results showed that the proposed approach was

16
effective in identifying and recognizing suspicious activities in real-time with high
accuracy.

Computer vision positioning and local obstacle avoidance optimization was addressed
using a neural network algorithm. The technique involved using a camera and a laser
range finder to capture real-time images addressed by Lei Yang et al. [32], and training
a neural network to recognize and avoid obstacles. The system was tested in a simulated
environment, and the results showed that it was able to accurately detect and avoid
obstacles in real-time.

Multivariate assessment of ecological environment carrying capacity was addressed

through the application of computer vision and sensor technology. This technique
proposed by Zhiguo Wang et al. [33], using an image acquisition system and sensor
network to obtain environmental data, and applying computer vision algorithms for
image processing and analysis. The results showed that the proposed method could
effectively analyze and evaluate the ecological environment carrying capacity.

The problem of identifying structural damage using noisy modal data was addressed in
the paper, and a combined modal correlation criterion was proposed. The proposed
technique involved the computation of the correlation between the identified damage-
sensitive mode shapes and the reference mode shapes suggested by Manolis
Georgioudakis, et al. [34]. The effectiveness of the proposed criterion was tested on a
simulated example of a damaged beam and an experimental example of a damaged truss
structure. The results demonstrated that the combined modal correlation criterion was
successful in identifying structural damage, even with the presence of noisy modal data.

The problem of determining the influential factors of building project cost in New
Zealand was addressed using a structural equation modelling approach. The technique
involved collecting data on various factors such as project scope, design complexity,
and construction material quality, and creating a model proposed by Linlin Zhao, et al.
[35], to determine their impact on project cost. The results showed that project scope
and design complexity were the most significant factors influencing project cost in New
Zealand.

17
The paper presented by Guofeng Ma, et al. [36], a technique for visualizing component
status information of prefabricated concrete buildings using building information
modeling (BIM) and radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. The technique
was applied in a case study in China to demonstrate its effectiveness in improving
building management and maintenance. The results showed that the integrated BIM and
RFID system was able to collect and process real-time data on the components of the
building, which can be used to optimize maintenance schedules and reduce costs. The
study demonstrated the potential of using BIM and RFID technology for improving
building management and maintenance.

The need for an automatic system for the design of assembly building components in
sustainable building projects. The technique used involved the use of Building
Information Modeling (BIM) technology proposed by Wenjing Wang et al. [37], to
generate digital models of the building components and a genetic algorithm to optimize
the design. The results showed that the proposed method was effective in generating
optimal designs for assembly building components while considering sustainability
factors. The automatic system was able to reduce design time and increase efficiency in
the design process.

The use of deep learning computer vision techniques for building load forecasting,
which is an important aspect of energy management in buildings. The technique used by
Ioannis Patsakos, et al. [38], in the study involved using deep learning algorithms, such
as convolutional neural networks (CNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM)
networks, to analyze building data and predict future load demand. The results showed
that deep learning techniques can outperform traditional methods, such as regression
analysis and time-series models, in accurately forecasting building load demand.

The prediction of supply chain costs for prefabricated building construction under
uncertainty. The technique used in the study suggested by Shaoli Wang et al. [39]
involved developing a prediction model based on the fuzzy set theory and Monte Carlo
simulation to account for the uncertainties in the supply chain. The results showed that
the proposed model was effective in predicting the supply chain costs and identifying
the factors that have the most significant impact on the costs. The study also provided
insights for the decision-makers in the construction industry to optimize the supply
chain management and reduce the costs.
18
The difficulty in selecting building flooring finishing materials due to the lack of a
systematic decision-making framework. The technique proposed by Mohamed A et al.
[40], in the study was the use of building information modeling (BIM) to integrate
various criteria, such as aesthetics, functionality, and cost, into a comprehensive
decision-making framework. The proposed framework was applied to a case study of a
residential building project, and the results showed that it was effective in providing a
systematic and efficient way to select building flooring finishing materials.

The paper discussed by Iván Garrido et al. [41] the problem of building assessment and
reviewed the applications of infrared thermography and ground-penetrating radar for
this purpose. The technique involved the use of non-destructive testing and evaluation
techniques to detect defects and anomalies in building components. The review showed
that IRT and GPR were effective in providing accurate and comprehensive information
on building conditions, allowing for early detection of defects and prevention of further
damage.

The need to improve construction efficiency through the use of a comprehensive

building information model (BIM). The technique proposed by Zhimin Wan et al. [42]
involved the development of a seven-dimensional BIM that included time, cost, and
sustainability factors in addition to the standard spatial dimensions. The results showed
that the use of a seven-dimensional BIM could lead to significant improvements in
construction efficiency, as it allowed for better coordination and communication among
project stakeholders, reduced errors and rework, and facilitated the adoption of
sustainable building practices.

19
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

20
 3.1 Methodology
The process of deformation monitoring based on computer vision methodology
involves several steps. Firstly, a camera network is set up around the structure to be
monitored, and the cameras are calibrated to ensure accurate measurement. The camera
network is typically composed of multiple cameras strategically placed around the
structure to provide full coverage. Secondly, images are captured at regular intervals
using the camera network. These images are then preprocessed to correct for distortions
and ensure that the images are properly aligned. This step is critical to ensure that
accurate measurements can be made [43]. Thirdly, computer vision techniques are used
to identify and track features on the structure, such as corners or edges. These features
are then tracked over time, and any changes in their position or shape are recorded. The
computer vision algorithms used to track the features must be accurate and robust to
ensure that accurate measurements are made. Fourthly, the data obtained from the image
analysis is processed and analyzed to determine the deformation of the structure. This
involves comparing the positions and shapes of the identified features over time to
determine any changes.
The data can be analyzed using various techniques, such as statistical analysis or
machine learning algorithms, to identify patterns and trends in the deformation [44].
Finally, the results of the deformation monitoring are presented in a clear and concise
manner, typically in the form of plots or graphs. These results can be used to inform
decisions about maintenance or repair of the structure and can help prevent catastrophic
failures.

21
 Figure 1. Process of deformation monitoring based on computer vision.

The use of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) extends beyond image

classification tasks, where a single label is inferred per image. CNNs apply multiple
nonlinear filters and generate a feature map, which contains filter responses (F in
Fig.2). Instead of using all filter responses at once to get a per-image class, each
location on the feature map can be used separately to extract information about object
categories and their locations. By using the feature map, semantic segmentation
algorithms can label each pixel of the image appropriately. Object detection
algorithms use the feature map to detect and localize objects of interest by drawing
their bounding boxes. Instance-level segmentation algorithms further process the
feature map to differentiate each instance of an object [45]. For instance, they assign a
separate label for each person in an image rather than the same label to all people in
the input image. When dealing with video data, spatiotemporal analysis can be
conducted using additional temporal information for segmentation.

The use of supervised learning techniques in computer vision is hindered by the

requirement of high-quality labeled data for training. Although software applications
have been developed to simplify the labeling process, manual labeling remains a

22
tedious task. To address this issue, weakly supervised training has been proposed,
which can perform object detection and localization tasks without the need for pixel-
level or object-level labeling of images [46]. In this approach, a Convolutional Neural
Network (CNN) is trained using image-wise labels to identify the object category and
approximate location in the image. This method enables the CNN to learn from a
large number of images without the need for detailed labeling, thereby reducing the
burden on human annotators.

Figure. 2. Fully convolutional neural networks (FCNs)

3.2 Generating synthetic labeled data using photorealistic physics based graphics
model
Physics-based graphics for automated assessment is to create a dataset of
graphics that can be used for assessing understanding of various physics concepts. To
collect the dataset, existing online resources that provide physics-based graphics can
be used. The dataset should be diverse and representative, covering a wide range of
concepts and difficulty levels [47]. Each graphic in the dataset should be labeled with
ground truth information, such as correct answers or explanations. Once the graphics
dataset has been collected, it needs to be preprocessed to prepare it for deep learning
algorithms. This may involve resizing, normalizing, and augmenting the graphics, as
well as converting them into a suitable format for deep learning algorithms. An
appropriate deep learning model for generating physics-based graphics needs to be
chosen. Depending on the specific problem statement and the type of graphics to be
generated, different models may be appropriate. For example, if diagrams need to be
generated, a convolutional neural network (CNN) may be suitable, while for
simulations or animations, a generative adversarial network (GAN) or a variational
auto encoder (VAE) may be better. D modeling, simulation, and rendering tools such

23
as Blender [48] can be used to better simulate real-world environmental effects.
Combined with deformed meshes from finite-element models, these tools can be used
to create graphics models of damaged structures. Understanding the damage condition
of a structure requires context awareness. For example, identical cracks at different
locations on the same structure could have different implications for the overall health
of a structure. Similarly, cracks in bridge columns must be treated differently than
cracks in a wall of a building. They proposed a novel framework (Fig. 24) using
physics-based models of structures to create synthetic graphics images of
representative damaged structures. The proposed framework has five main steps: 1 the
use of parameterized finite-element models to structurally model representative
structures of various shapes, sizes, and materials;2 nonlinear finite-element analysis to
identify structural hotspots on the generated models; 3 the application of material
graphic properties for realistic rendering of the generated model; 4 procedural damage
generation using hotspots from finite-element models; and 5 the training of deep
learning models for assessment using generated synthetic data [49].
The preprocessed dataset needs to be used to train the chosen deep learning model.
During training, the model learns to generate new physics-based graphics by
optimizing its parameters to minimize a loss function. The loss function measures the
difference between the generated graphics and the ground truth graphics in the
dataset. The performance of the deep learning model needs to be evaluated to assess
its performance. This can be done by generating new physics-based graphics and
comparing them to the ground truth graphics in the dataset [50]. Evaluation metrics
such as accuracy, precision, and recall can be used to measure the performance of the
model.

Figure 3: Framework for physics – based graphics generation for automated

assessment using deep learning.

24
 CHAPTER 4
TOOLS AND PLATFORM

25
4. Tools and platforms
4.1 OpenCV:
OpenCV provides a collection of algorithms and functions for image and video
processing. It includes various computer vision techniques, such as feature detection,
object detection, segmentation, and tracking. These techniques can be used for
structural identification of buildings by analyzing images or videos of buildings. For
example, feature detection can be used to detect key points or corners in an image that
represent the edges or corners of structural elements. Object detection can be used to
detect specific objects or elements in an image, such as windows or doors.
Segmentation can be used to separate an image into different regions based on their
properties, such as color or texture, which can help identify different materials or
components of a building.
4.2 TensorFlow:
TensorFlow is a machine learning framework that provides tools and libraries for
building and training deep learning models. It supports various neural network
architectures, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural
networks (RNNs), which can be used for computer vision-based structural
identification of buildings. CNNs can be used for object detection and segmentation
tasks by learning to identify patterns or features in images that correspond to specific
objects or elements. RNNs can be used for time-series analysis of sensor data or video
streams to detect anomalies or changes in the behavior of a building.
4.3 MATLAB:
MATLAB provides a comprehensive set of functions and tools for image and video
processing, including computer vision and deep learning. It includes various image
enhancement, feature extraction, segmentation, and classification techniques that can
be used for structural identification of buildings. MATLAB also provides a graphical
user interface (GUI) for interactive image analysis and processing.
4.4 Pix4D:
Pix4D provides photogrammetry tools for generating 3D models of buildings from
images captured by drones or cameras. It uses photogrammetric principles, such as
triangulation and bundle adjustment, to reconstruct the 3D geometry of a building
from multiple images taken from different angles. The resulting 3D model can be
used for structural identification of buildings by analyzing its geometry and features.

26
4.5 DroneDeploy:
DroneDeploy provides a cloud-based platform for drone mapping and image
processing. It uses computer vision techniques, such as photogrammetry and structure
from motion (SfM), to generate 3D models of buildings from images captured by
drones. These models can be used for structural identification of buildings by
analyzing their geometry and features.
4.6 Autodesk ReCap:
Autodesk ReCap provides 3D scanning and photogrammetry tools for generating 3D
models of buildings. It uses laser scanning and photogrammetry techniques to capture
the geometry and texture of a building and generate a 3D model. The resulting model
can be used for structural identification of buildings by analyzing its geometry and
features.
4.7 OpenDroneMap:
OpenDroneMap is an open-source photogrammetry software that provides tools for
generating 3D models of buildings from images captured by drones. It uses similar
techniques as Pix4D and DroneDeploy to reconstruct the 3D geometry of a building
from multiple images taken from different angles. The resulting model can be used for
structural identification of buildings by analyzing its geometry and features.

27
 CHAPTER 5
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

28
5. Design and implementation
5.1 Data collection:
The first step in designing a computer vision-based structural identification system for
buildings is to collect data. This typically involves capturing images or videos of the
building from multiple angles and viewpoints. There are several methods for
collecting data, including using drones, cameras, or other imaging devices. It is
important to ensure that all structural elements of the building are visible in the
images and that the data collected is of high quality.

5.2 Image processing:

The next step is to process the images to remove noise, correct for distortion, and
enhance image quality. This is important to ensure that the features of the building are
accurately detected and segmented. Image processing techniques can include filtering,
smoothing, and contrast enhancement. Popular image processing tools for this step
include OpenCV, MATLAB, and Python libraries such as NumPy and SciPy.

5.3 Feature detection:

The next step is to detect features in the images that correspond to structural elements
of the building, such as walls, columns, and beams. Feature detection is a critical step
in identifying the building's structure accurately. There are several techniques for
feature detection, including edge detection, corner detection, or object detection.
OpenCV and TensorFlow are popular tools for feature detection in computer vision.

5.4 Segmentation:
Once the features are detected, the next step is to segment the image into different
regions based on the properties of the features. This is typically done to separate the
structural elements from other objects in the image, such as trees or vehicles.
Segmentation can be done using techniques such as color-based segmentation or
texture-based segmentation. MATLAB, OpenCV, and Python libraries such as scikit-
image are popular tools for segmentation.

5.5 3D reconstruction:

29
The segmented images can then be used to reconstruct a 3D model of the building.
This step involves converting the 2D images into a 3D representation of the building.
Photogrammetry tools such as Pix4D, DroneDeploy, or Autodesk ReCap are popular
for this step. These tools use algorithms to generate a point cloud from the images,
which can then be used to create a 3D model. The 3D model provides a detailed
representation of the building's geometry and structure.

5.6 Visualization:
The final step is to visualize the results of the analysis in a user-friendly format. This
step involves creating 3D visualizations of the building and the analysis results. Tools
such as Jupyter notebook, and MATLAB's built-in visualization tools can be used to
create these visualizations. The visualization can help stakeholders understand the
structural condition of the building and make informed decisions about maintenance
and repair.

30
 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

31
6.1 Result and Analysis

The displacement outcomes at the measurement point for all experiments. All data

sets measured by LVDT and the proposed vision-based approach have sample

rates of 30 Hz. Both the suggested vision-based approach and the raw

displacement data from the LVDT are synced and shown in each graph in a

comparable manner. Although the experimental configurations for the various

experiments vary, it is clear that the displacement values calculated using the non-

target vision-based technique and the LVDT sensor data exhibit a strong

correlation. As demonstrated in the insets, every peak of the vibration data clearly

confirms this fact. The correlation coefficient factors are used to assess the

correlation behavior between two datasets ( ) are calculated for each experiment

using Equation 1. Additionally, the determination coefficient, a statistic(R-

squared) factor is calculated to assess how closely the two datasets correspond.

Equation may be used to compute the R-squared value.

ρ=
|∑ i ( d L ( i )−μ d ) × ( dV ( i )−μ d
I II
)|

√
(1)
∑ ( d L ( i )−μ a )2 √∑ ( dV ( i )−u a )2
L V
1 1

Where dL and dv are the dynamic displacement values obtained using the proposed

vision-based technique and the LVDT sensor's raw data, respectively, after filtering

out the static component; and 𝜇𝑑𝐿 and 𝜇𝑑𝑣 are the mean values of two above datasets.

The values of  vary from 0.0 to 1.0; and    shows perfect correlation

whereas    shows that there is no link between the two datasets.

32
 2
R =1−
∑ i ( r V ( i )−r L ( i ) )
2

∑ (r V (i )−μ r ) V
I

Where rL and rv are the raw displacement values obtained by the LVDT and

proposed vision-based method, respectively; and 𝜇𝑟𝑣 is the mean value of the raw

dataset determined by the proposed method. The values of R is from 0.0 to 1.0;

and the R value of 1.0 implies the perfect similarity between two datasets.

The comparison results between two displacement datasets obtained from a

classical sensor and a new vision-based method are described in Table 3. As seen

in Table 3, maximum and minimum static displacements of the bridge model are

consistent from Test 1 to 5 based on the responses from the same small-scale

vehicle weight (12.3 kg). However, the lighter weight vehicle (5.3 kg) being

utilized at Test 6 induces smaller displacement amplitudes and the ratio of

displacement amplitudes is similar to the weight ratio. It is also seen that the

correlation coefficient

 values (from 0.929 to 0.971) and the determination coefficient R-squared

values (from 0.9987 to 0.9998) are close to 1.000, which indicate a very high

correlation and similarity between the two compared datasets. Hence, the

displacements obtained by the non-target displacement measurement method show

comparable and accurate results when under laboratory condition.

33
 Vision-based
LVDT Error
Method
Corr. R-
Max Min Max Min Max Min
(ρ) squared
Disp.a Disp.a Disp.a Disp.a Disp.a Disp.a

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (%) (%)

Test 1 2.45 -0.71 2.47 -0.72 0.8% 1.4% 0.969 0.9997

Test 2 2.36 -0.64 2.41 -0.67 2.1% 4.5% 0.971 0.9998

Test 3 2.37 -0.68 2.45 -0.69 3.3% 1.4% 0.961 0.9995

Test 4 2.46 -0.70 2.48 -0.71 0.8% 1.4% 0.929 0.9995

Test 5 2.51 -0.74 2.50 -0.74 0.4% 0.0% 0.951 0.9987

Test 6 1.06 -0.30 1.07 -0.31 0.9% 3.2% 0.938 0.9988

Table 1. Correlation and error analysis for the proposed method

Furthermore, the dynamic characteristics of the 4-span bridge model can be

captured by analyzing the dynamic component of the raw displacement datasets. By
FFT-transforming the dynamic displacements from time domain to frequency domain,
the natural frequencies of the bridge model can be identified as shown in Figure 14 at
4.9 Hz, and 6.9 Hz. In the meantime, vibration response of the bridge model is
collected by using an accelerometer attached at the same location captured by the
camera. Figure 14 also shows the raw data recorded by using that accelerometer; from
which the first and second natural frequencies of the structure can be detected. The
identified frequencies from accelerometer data are 5.2 Hz, and 7.0 Hz that closely
match to the frequencies of 4.9 Hz, and 6.9 Hz identified using the proposed vision-
based method. However, in spite of the good match for the first two frequencies,
34
higher frequencies of the bridge structures can only be identified using accelerometer
data. Through the results of the non-target vision-based displacement measurement
method described in this section, it is seen that the proposed algorithm can not only
obtain static displacements but also identify dynamic characteristics of the 4-span
bridge model. The outcomes from different experimental setups confirm the accuracy
of the proposed method consistently in the laboratory. For further verification, real-
life structures are conducted and the corresponding results are presented and discussed
in the following sections.

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

35
7.1 Conclusion
Computer vision-based structural identification is an emerging technology that
uses artificial intelligence to analyze images and videos of buildings to assess their
health and integrity. This technology has the potential to revolutionize the way we
evaluate and maintain buildings, providing valuable insights into a structure's overall
condition without the need for invasive testing. One of the main benefits of computer
vision-based structural identification is that it can be used in real-time, allowing
engineers and inspectors to quickly and accurately assess a building's condition. This
is particularly useful in emergency situations, such as earthquakes or other natural
disasters, where time is of the essence. By using computer vision algorithms to
analyze images and videos, engineers can quickly identify areas of damage and
prioritize repairs to ensure the safety of building occupants.Another advantage of
computer vision-based structural identification is that it can be used to monitor
buildings over time. By collecting and analyzing data on a structure's condition over
months or years, engineers can gain a better understanding of how the building is
aging and whether any maintenance or repairs are needed. This information can be
used to develop more effective maintenance and repair plans, helping to extend the
life of the building and ensure the safety of its occupants.
Another advantage of computer vision-based structural identification is that it
can be used to monitor buildings over time. By collecting and analyzing data on a
structure's condition over months or years, engineers can gain a better understanding
of how the building is aging and whether any maintenance or repairs are needed. This
information can be used to develop more effective maintenance and repair plans,
helping to extend the life of the building and ensure the safety of its occupants.

36
7.2 Future scope
One area of potential growth is the use of drones for building inspections.
Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras and computer vision algorithms can
quickly and accurately analyze a building's condition from all angles, including hard-
to-reach areas. This can save time and reduce the need for workers to physically
inspect the building, reducing the risk of accidents and injuries. Another area of
growth is the use of machine learning algorithms to improve the accuracy and
reliability of computer vision-based structural identification. By training the
algorithms on large datasets of images and videos of buildings, engineers can improve
the algorithms' ability to identify anomalies and detect damage. The integration of
computer vision-based structural identification with other technologies, such as
sensors and internet of things (IoT) devices, is also a promising area of growth. By
combining data from multiple sources, engineers can gain a more comprehensive
understanding of a building's condition and develop more effective maintenance and
repair plans.
Finally, the use of virtual and augmented reality technologies in building
analysis is also a promising area of growth. By creating virtual models of buildings
and overlaying them with data from computer vision-based structural identification,
engineers can gain a better understanding of a building's condition and identify
potential issues before they become more serious.

37
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