Overview of Physiology Ayoka AO-1

PROF A. O.
AYOKA
1|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
CONTENTS / 1
INTRODUCTION TO NEUROPHYSIOLOGY / 2-4
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION /4-28
The CNS organization / 4-5

Classes of neurons / 5-6
Protection and nourishment of the brain, CNS / 7-11
Glial cells / 7-8

The meninges / 9-10
Cerebrospinal fluid / 10-11
The blood-brain barrier / 11
Brain damage, headache / 12-13
The central nervous system / 13-28
The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) / 13-18

Association areas / 17-18
Electroencephalogram / 18
Subcortical structures / 18-20
Basal nuclei / 18-19
Diencephalon / 20
The limbic system / 20-23
Emotion / 21-22
Motivation and learning/ 22
Memory / 22-23
Cerebellum / 23-25
Brainstem / 25-28
Sleep / 27-28
Spinal cord / 28-32
Spinal reflex / 30-32
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM / 33-34

Receptors / 33-34
Types of receptors
Based on energy response / 33-34
Based on adaptation speed / 34
PAIN / 35-36
REFERENCES / 37
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
2|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
This is the study of the neurons which are the basic functional unit of the central nervous system. Action
potential is the electrochemical changes that occur when an excitable tissue is stimulated or excited. It is
composed of four (4) principal phases.
1. Polarization
2. Depolarization
3. Hyperpolarization
4. Repolarization
Also, the refractory period assures unidirectional propagation of the action potential and limits the frequency
of action potential. Under the refractory period, we have absolute refractory period during the time that a
particular batch of axonal membrane is undergoing an action potential, it is capable of initiating another
action potential no matter how strongly it is stimulated and this is guided by the sodium-gated channels.
Relative refractory period during which a second action potential can be produced only by a stimulus
considered stronger than it is usually necessary and this phase is called potassium-gated channel control. The
length of refractory period varies for different types of neurons. The longer the refractory period, the greater
the delay period before a new action potential can be initiated and the lower the frequency with which a nerve
cell can respond to repeated or ongoing stimulation.
Action potential occurs in all or none fashion. A stronger stimulus triggers a greater number of action
potentials per second to be propagated along the fiber. The junction between two neurons is called the
synapse.
A neurotransmitter carries the signal across a synapse. It has been estimated that some neurons between the
CNS receive as many as 100,000 synaptic impulse. Some synapses excite the post-synaptic neurons whereas
others inhibit. The synaptic delay is usually about 0.5 – 1 millisecond. Neurotransmitters are quickly removed
from the synaptic cleft to wipe the post-synaptic slate clean.
The grand post-synaptic potential depends on the sum of activities in all pre-synaptic nucleus. There are four
(4) possible outcomes of the grand post-synaptic potential;
1. If the active pre-synaptic inputs are predominantly excitatory, either from a single excitatory input
(known as the temporal summation) or from a several simultaneously activated excitatory input called
spatial summation, the post-synaptic neuron may reach threshold and have action potential. This
action potential will cause the post-synaptic neuron to release a neurotransmitter that will influence
all of the cells innervated by the neuron.
2. If excitatory input exceeds inhibitory input but the membrane is still not sufficiently depolarized to
reach threshold, the membrane itself to be facilitated, it is more likely than usual to have an action
potential.
3. If on the other hand, predominantly inhibitory input is activated, the post-synaptic cell would be
driven further from threshold, precluding it from having an action potential and thus preventing it
from influencing the cell it innervates.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
3|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
4. If there is a balance of activated excitatory and inhibitory inputs, these effects would negate each other
and the post-synaptic neurons will be fundamentally unaffected.
Neuromodulators are chemical messengers that binds to neuronal receptors at non-synaptic sites. In so
doing, they activate second messenger system that produce long term intracellular biochemical effect that
alters the effectiveness of ongoing synaptic activity. Neuromodulators may act as either pre-synaptic or post-
synaptic sites. For example, a neuromodulator may influence the level of an enzyme critical in the synthesis
of a specific neurotransmitter by a pre-synaptic neuron or it may alter the sensitivity of post-synaptic
receptors to a particular neurotransmitter. Thus, neuromodulation is another way to delicately fine-tune the
synaptic responses.
The vast majority of drugs that influence the nervous system perform their functions by altering synaptic
mechanism. Synaptic drugs may act to block an undesirable effect or to enhance a desirable effect. Possible
drug actions include the following:
1. Altering the synthesis, axonal transportation, storage or release of a neurotransmitter.

2. Modifying neurotransmitter interaction with the post-synaptic receptor.
3. Influencing neurotransmitter’s uptake or destruction.
4. Replacing a deficient neurotransmitter with a substituted neurotransmitter e.g. L-DOPA.
Any site along the synaptic pathway is vulnerable to interference, either pharmacological i.e. drug-induced
or pathological i.e. disease-induced.
Neurons are linked to each other through convergence and divergence to vast and complex nerve pathways.
These are estimated 100 billion neurons in the brain alone. When considering the first and intricate
interconnections possible through converging and diverging pathways, we can begin to imagine how complex
the wiring mechanism of our nervous system really is. Even the most sophisticated computers are far less
complex than the human brain is.
The brain is the most complicated, mysterious, awesome organ considering the several mirages of
interconnections possible between the estimated 100 billion neurons in the brain. The human brain is so
unique that no experimental animal models are available for studying the most complex and sophisticated
functions such as language and creativity. In addition, many aspects of brain functions involve subjective
feelings that cannot be measured or communicated by non-verbal animals; features such as happiness,
sadness, fear, love, joy, jealousy.
We can only observe in animals, behavioral aspects that “we” associate with certain emotional state. For
example, a dog wiggling its tail when you assume that it is happy. Therefore, studies on experimental animals
have been limited to examining less advanced, objective, measurable brain activities such as control of
movement shared in common between human and other species. Knowledge about brain is from:
1. Man’s stimulation during brain surgery

2. Analysis of changes in electrical activities reaching the surface of the skull when a person in engaged
in various activities.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
4|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
3. Observations of defects in functions associated with diseases or destruction of a particular area of the
brain.
4. Detailed anatomical studies in cadavers.
5. Inferences from animal studies, for emphasis, this is limited to characteristics shared in common
between this species and human.
6. Leaving most of the characteristics that confide upon man as human.
7. Several exciting new non-invasive techniques of imaging the living human brain cells as well as new
methods of probing cellular and molecular functions of neurons.
These methods are dramatically adding new piece of knowledge needed to bridge the gap between our
understanding of the biology of nervous cells, behavior and intellect of the neuron brain.
The way the human brain acts and reacts depends on the complex organized discrete neuronal processing.
Many of the basic life supporting neuronal patterns such as those controlling respiration and circulation are
similar in all individuals. However, some differences in the nervous system between individuals are genetically
endowed, the rest are due to environmental encounters and experiences. The nervous and endocrine system
have different regulating responsibilities but share much in common.
The nervous system via its rapid transmission of impulses are generally coordinates the rapid activities of the
body such as muscle movement whereas endocrine system primarily controls metabolic and other activities
that requires duration rather than speed such as maintenance of blood glucose level etc. Both the nervous
system and endocrine system ultimately alter their target cells by the release of chemical messengers that
interact in particular ways with specific receptors of the target cells. The main differences between the
endocrine and the nervous systems are:
1. The distance travelled by the messengers is only across a synaptic cleft by the nervous system whereas
it is a long distance through the blood by the endocrine system.
2. The signal for the release of the messengers is action potential in the nervous system whereas
numerous specific signals which may include action potential are involved in the endocrine system.
The nervous system has an important control function over the secretion of hormones. At the same time,
many hormones act as neuromodulators to alter synaptic effectiveness. The presence of certain key hormones
is even essential for the proper development and interaction of brain tissue.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
The central nervous system is organized into the central nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal
cord, and the peripheral nervous system consisting of nerve fibers that carry information between the central
nervous system and other parts of the body called the periphery. The peripheral nervous system is further
subdivided into afferent and efferent divisions.
The afferent division carries information to the central nervous system apprising it of the external
environment and providing status report on the internal activities being regulated by the nervous system.
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Instructions from the central nervous system are transported via the efferent division to the effector organs
which are the muscles or glands that carry out the order.
The efferent division is divided into the somatic nervous system which consists of motor neurons that supply
the skeletal muscles and the autonomic nervous system which innervate smooth muscles, cardiac muscles
and glands. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic nervous system and
the parasympathetic nervous system both of which innervate most of the organ supplied by the autonomic
system.
These arbitrary divisions are based on the differences in the structure, location and functions of various diverse
parts of the whole nervous system.
CENTRAL Brain Spinal cord

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Output from CNS
to periphery
Input to CNS
from periphery Efferent division
Afferent
division Somatic Autonomic
nervous system nervous system
PERIPHERAL Sympathetic Parasympathetic

NERVOUS SYSTEM Motor neurons nervous system nervous system
Skeletal muscle Smooth, cardiac muscle and glands

EFFECTOR ORGANS
Made up of muscles and glands tissue
CLASSES OF NEURONS
There are three (3) classes of neurons which are:
1. Afferent neurons
2. Efferent neurons
3. Interneurons
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6|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
The afferent neuron has a unique shape. It has peripheral ending that has a sensory receptor that generates
action potential in response to a particular type of stimulus. The afferent neuron cell body is devoid of
dendrites and pre-synaptic inputs. It is located adjacent to the spinal cord. It has a long peripheral axon that
extends from the receptors to the cell body and a short central axon passes from the cell body into the spinal
cord. The terminals of the central axon diverge and synapse with other neurons within the spinal cord. In this
way, disseminating information about the stimulus. Afferent neurons thus lie primarily within the peripheral
nervous system with only a small portion of their central axon endings projecting into the spinal cord to relay
peripheral signals.
Efferent neurons also lie primarily in the peripheral nervous system. The cell body of efferent neurons
originate in the central nervous system where many centrally located pre-synaptic inputs converge upon
them to influence their output to the effector organs. Efferent axons leave the central nervous system to
course their way to the muscles and glands they innervate, conveying their integrated output for the effector
organs to put to effect. Note that the autonomic neurons pathway actually consists of a two-neuron chain
between the central nervous system and the effector organ .
Interneurons lie entirely within the central nervous system. About 99% of neurons belong to this category.
They serve two main purposes;
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7|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
1. As their name implies, they lie between the afferent and efferent and they are important in the
integration of peripheral responses to peripheral information, e.g. upon receiving information
through afferent neurons that you are touching a hot object, appropriate interneurons signal efferent
neurons that transmit to hand and arm muscles the message to pull the hand away from the object.
The more complex the action required, the greater the number of interneurons intercourse between
the afferent message and the efferent response.
2. Interconnections between interneurons themselves are responsible for the abstract phenomena
associated with the mind such as thought, emotion, memory, creativity, intellect and motivation.
PROTECTION AND NOURISHMENT OF THE BRAIN
About 90% of the cells within the central nervous system are not neurons but are glial cells or neuroglial.
Despite their large number, the glial cells only occupy about half the volume of the brain because they do
not branch as extensively as the neurons do. Unlike neurons, glial cells do not initiate or conduct nerve
impulses. They are important however in the viability of the central nervous system. They serve as the
connective tissue of the central nervous system and as such, help support the neurons both physically and
metabolically. The four (4) major types of glial cells are:
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Ependymal cells
4. Microglia cells
Astrocytes provide a number of critical functions;
1. As the main glue of the central nervous system, they hold the neurons together in proper spatial
relationship.
2. They are important in the repair of brain injuries and in the neural scar formation.
3. They help to support the neurons metabolically.
4. They take up excess K+ from the brain extracellular fluid when high action potential activities outpace
the ability of the Na-K pump to return the effluxed K + to the neuron.
The brain capillaries are surrounded by astrocyte processes which at one time were thought to be physically
responsible for the blood-brain barrier. Evidences now indicate that the astrocytes now have three (3) major
roles;
1. They signal the cells forming the brain capillaries to get tight
2. Astrocytes participate in the cross-cellular transport of some substances such as K +.
3. They serve as supporting frameworks to maintain structural relationships between the capillaries and
the surrounding tissue.
Oligodendrocytes form the insulative myelin sheets around axons in the central nervous system and
oligodendrocytes have several elongated projections, each of which is wrapped in a jelly-rolled fashion a
section of an intraneuronal axon to form a patch of myelin.
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8|NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Ependymal cells line the internal cavities of the central nervous system as the nervous system develops
embryologically from the hollow neural tube. The original central cavity of this tube is maintained and
modified to form the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. The ependymal cells
lining the ventricles contribute to the formation of cerebrospinal fluid.
The microglia cells are the scavengers of the central nervous system. They are fibrocystic cells delivered by the
blood to the central nervous tissue where they remain stationary until activated by an infection or an injury.
They then migrate to the affected area to remove any foreign invaders to tissue debris.
Unlike neurons, glial cells undergo cell division so most brain tumors of neural origin consist of glial cells
gliomas. Neurons themselves do not form tumors because of their inability to divide and multiply. Brain
tumors of non-neuronal origins are of two types:
1. Those that metastasize to the brain from other sites.

2. Meningiomas which originate from the meninges which is the protective membrane covering the
central nervous system
A B
C D
A: A typical human astrocyte. B: An oligodendrocyte enwrapping several axons with myelin. C: Ependyma
cells in the “E” zone. D: Activated microglial cells in the human central nervous system.
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PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The central nervous tissue is very delicate. This is coupled with the fact that damaged nerve cells cannot be
replaced because of the inability of the neurons to divide. This makes it imperative that this fragile
irreplaceable tissue should be well protected. Four additional major features help to protect the central
nervous system from injuries;
1. It is enclosed by a hard-bony structure called (cranium/skull). The cranium encases the brain and the
vertebral column encloses the spinal cord.
2. Three protective and nourishing membranes called the meninges lie between the bony covering and
the nervous tissue.
3. The brain floats in a special cushion fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid.
4. A highly selective blood-brain barrier limits the access of potentially harmful materials into the
vulnerable brain tissue.
The protective device of the bony covering is self-evident.
THE MENINGES
The three membranes that wrap up the central nervous system are (from the outermost to the innermost
layer):
1. The dura mater

2. The arachnoid mater
3. The pia mater
Arrangement of
the meninges
from the outermost
to the innermost layer
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
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10 | N E U R O P H Y S I O L O G Y
The dura mater is the tough inelastic covering consisting of two layers. Usually, these layers are closely
adherent but, in some regions, they are separated to form blood-filled capillaries called the dura sinuses or in
the case of a larger cavity called the venous sinuses. Venous blood draining from the brain empties into these
sinuses to be emptied into the heart. Cerebrospinal fluid also reenters the blood at these sinuses.
The arachnoid mater is a delicate richly vascularized layer that is cobweb-like in its appearance. The space
between the arachnoid layer and the underlying pia mater called the subarachnoid space is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. Protrusions of arachnoid tissues called the arachnoid villi penetrate through gaps in the
overlying dura mater and projects into the dura sinuses. It is across the surface of these villi that cerebrospinal
fluid is reabsorbed into circulation within the sinuses.
The pia mater is the innermost and the most fragile layer of the meningeal layer. It is highly vascularized and
closely adherent to the surface of the brain and spinal cord following every ridges and valleys. In certain areas,
it digs deeply into the brain to bring a rich blood supply into close contact with the ependymal cells lining
the ventricle. This relationship is important in the formation of the cerebrospinal fluid.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
The central nervous system is suspended in its own special fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid. Cerebrospinal
fluid is formed primarily by the choroid plexus found in a particular region of the ventricle of the brain.
Choroid plexus consists of richly vascularized masses of pia mater tissue that digs into pockets formed by
ependymal cells. Once cerebrospinal fluid is formed, it flows through the 4 interconnected ventricles within
the interiors of the brain and through the spinal cord narrow central canal which is continuous with the last
ventricle.
Cerebrospinal fluid escapes through the small openings from the 4th ventricles at the base of the brain to enter
the subarachnoid space and subsequently flows between the meningeal layer over the entire surface of the
brain and the spinal cord. When the cerebrospinal fluid reaches the upper region of the brain, it is reabsorbed
from the subarachnoid space into the venous blood through the arachnoid villi. Flow of the cerebrospinal
fluid through this system is facilitated by circulatory and postural factors that results in the cerebrospinal fluid
pressure of about 10mmHg. Reduction of this pressure by removing a very small mL of cerebrospinal fluid
during a spinal tap for circulatory analysis may produce severe headache.
Note that through the ongoing process of formation, circulation and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, its
entire volume of about 125 – 150 mL is replaced more than 3 times in a day. Hydrocephalus i.e. “water in the
brain” occurs if any one of these processes is defective so that excess cerebrospinal fluid accumulates. The
resulting increase in cerebrospinal fluid pressure can lead to brain damage and mental retardation if untreated.
Treatment consists of surgically shunting the excess cerebrospinal fluid to veins elsewhere in the body.
The major function of the cerebrospinal fluid is to serve as a shock-absorbing fluid i.e. cushion fluid to prevent
the brain from bumping against the interior of the hard skull when the head is subjected to hard jacking
movements. The density of the cerebrospinal fluid is about the same as that of the brain itself so the brain is
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
actually suspended in its special fluid environment. Also, the cerebrospinal fluid performs an important role
related to exchange of materials between the body fluid and the brain.
Since the composition of the brain interstitial is influenced more by changes in the composition of
cerebrospinal fluid than by alterations in the blood plasma because there is fairly free exchange of materials
between the cerebrospinal fluid and the brain interstitial fluid but only a limited exchange between the blood
and the brain interstitial fluid. The composition of the cerebrospinal fluid is different from plasma e.g.,
cerebrospinal fluid is lower in K+ concentration and higher in Na+ concentration making it an ideal
environment for the movement of those ions down the concentration gradient. A process essential for
conduction of nerve impulses.
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
A highly selective blood-brain barrier carefully regulates exchange between the blood and the brain i.e., the
brain is carefully shielded from harmful changes in the blood by the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain
barrier consists of both anatomical and physiological factors. Capillary walls throughout the body are formed
by a single layer of cells. Usually, there are pores or holes between the cells making up the capillary wall that
permit free exchange of all plasma components with the surrounding interstitial fluid with the exception of
the large plasma proteins in the blood capillaries.
However, the cells are joined by tight junctions that completely seals the capillary wall so that nothing can
be exchanged across the wall by passing between the cells. The only exchanges are through the capillary cells
themselves. Lipid-soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol and steroid hormones penetrate
these cells easily by dissolving in their lipid plasma membrane. Small water molecules also diffuse through
readily apparently by passing between the phospholipid molecules that compose the cell membrane. All other
substances exchanged between the blood and the brain interstitial fluid including such essential materials as
glucose, amino acids and ions are transported by highly selective membrane-bound carries. In summary,
transport across the capillary walls between the cell is anatomically prevented and transport through the cells
is physiologically restricted.
The blood-brain barrier protects the delicate spinal cord from chemical fluctuations in the blood and
minimizes the possibilities that potentially harmful blood-bound substances might reach the central nervous
tissue. It further prevents certain circulatory hormones that could act as neurotransmitters from reaching the
brain where it produces uncontrollable nervous activities. On the negative side, the blood-brain barrier limits
the use of drugs for the treatment of brain and spinal cord disorders because many drugs are unable to
penetrate the barrier.
Certain areas of the brain are not subjected to the blood-brain barrier, most notably, a portion of the
hypothalamus. Functioning of the hypothalamus depends on its “sampling” of the blood and adjusting of
controlling output accordingly in order to maintain homeostasis. Part of the output from the hypothalamus
is in the form of hormone that must enter hypothalamic capillaries to be transported to the site of action.
Appropriately, these hypothalamic capillaries are not sealed by tight junctions.
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BRAIN DAMAGE
The brain depends on constant delivery of oxygen and glucose by the blood. Accordingly, brain damage
results if the brain is deprived of the oxygen for more than 4-5 minutes or if its glucose supply is cut off for
more than 10-15 minutes. Even though the brain is carefully protected in its cushion vault, traumatic head
injuries may damage delicate tissues.
Direct brain damage occurs if the brain is violently shaken or jacked by a forceful impact such as a fall or a
blow of if crushed cranial bones are pushed against the underlying neural tissues. Further indirect brain
damage may occur following a head injury as a consequence of swelling and hemorrhage within the enclosed
confine of the cranium. This resultant increase in intracranial pressure may cause compression and damage
the brain tissue. The most common of brain damage is cerebrovascular accident called stroke. Rupture or
blockage of a brain i.e. cerebral blood vessel deprives the brain tissue being supplied by the involved vessels of
its vital oxygen and glucose supply. This leads to damage and usually death of the deprived tissue.
Brain damage may also occur as a result of infections or degenerative neural disorders or brain tumors, all of
which can lead to destruction of the brain tissue. After damage, the nature of the ensuing loss of neurological
functions depends on the area of the brain involved and the extent of permanent damage occurred. For
example,
1. It is going to result to death if an area responsible for maintenance of vital functions is involved e.g.
cardiovascular or respiratory center.
2. It will lead to severe or mild loss of specific sensory awareness.
3. It can lead to motor (movement) disorders of varying severity.
4. It impairs mental abilities.
5. The person might be lucky and have a full functional recovery.
The brain displays a level of plasticity i.e. an ability to change or be functionally remodeled in response to
demands placed on it. This ability is more pronounced in the early developmental years. Headache are
sometimes due to brain damage. Headaches are the most common form of pain. Most headaches are not
associated with brain damage, they usually result from tension or increased pressure with pain-sensitive
structures inside the cranium.
The following are among the causes of headaches:
1. Tension associated with sustained tightening of muscles in the neck, scalp and forehead in conjunction
with anxiety, stress and fatigue.
2. Swelling of the mucus membrane lining the sinuses in response to respiratory infections and allergies.
3. Eye disorders accomplished by straining of the eye muscles.
4. Dilation of cerebral blood vessels in association with high blood pressure, hangover or migraine
headache.
5. Increased intracranial pressure accompanying brain tumor or intracranial hemorrhaging.
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6. Inflammation or swelling associated with meningeal infection called meningitis or infection of the
brain itself, encephalitis.
Although the brain is a functional hole, it is organized into several different regions. There are various ways
to arbitrarily group the parts of the brain based on anatomical distinction, functional specialization and
evolutionary development.
1. Cerebral cortex
a. Cortical structure
b. Cortical mapping
c. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
2. Subcortical structures and their relationship with the cortex in higher brain
a. Basal nuclei/ganglia
b. Diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
3. Limbic system (emotion, motivation, learning and memory)
4. Cerebellum
5. Brainstem (components and functions)
6. Spinal cord
a. Spinal nerves
b. Microscopic anatomy of the spinal cord
c. Spinal reflexes
THE CEREBRUM (CEREBRAL CORTEX)
The cerebrum is the most highly developed in humans constituting about 80% of the total brain weight. In
humans, the outer layer on the cerebrum is the highly convoluted cerebral cortex which plays a key role in
the most sophisticated neural function such as voluntary initiation of movement, functional sensory
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perception, conscious thought, language, personality traits and other factors are associated with mind or
intellect. It is the highest, most complex integrating area of the brain.
The cerebrum, by far the largest portion of the human brain, is divided into two halves; the right and the left
hemispheres. They are connected to each other by the “corpus callosum” (a thick band consisting of an
estimated 300 million neural axons traversing between the two hemispheres). Each hemisphere is comprised
of a thick outer shell of grey matter covering a thick central core of white matter. Throughout the entire
nervous system, the grey matter consists predominantly of a densely packed cell bodies and dendrites. Bundles
of tracts of myelinated nerve fibers constitute the white matter. The lipid (fat) composition of myelin is
responsible for its white appearance. The fiber tracts in the white matter transmit signals from one part of the
cerebral cortex to another or between the cortex and other regions of the central nervous system. Such
communication enables integration between different areas of the cortex and elsewhere e.g. in picking a
flower, it involves vision, smelling, appreciation, urge and initiation of mood.
The cerebral cortex is organized into 6 (six) well defined layers based on varying distribution of cell bodies
and locally associated cell fibers of several distinct cell types. These layers are organized into functional vertical
columns that extend perpendicularly from the surface down through the depth of the cortex to the
underlying white matter. The neurons within a given column are believed to function as a team with each
cell being involved in different aspects of the same specific activities.
The 6 layers of the cerebral cortex in three

columns by the staining techniques of
 Golgi (impregnating whole neurons)

 Nissl (staining cell bodies)
 Weigert (staining nerve fibers)
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The functional differences between various areas of the cortex result from different layering patterns within
the columns and from different input-output connections not from the presence of unique cell types or
different neuronal mechanisms. For instance, layer 4 is the majorly for senses and is made up of stellate cells
while layer 5 which is made up of pyramidal cells are for initiation of skeletal muscles.
The 4 pair of lobes in the cerebral cortex are specialized for different activities. The anatomical landmarks used
in cortical mapping are certain deep folds that divide each half of the cortex into 4 major lobes (occipital,
temporal, parietal and frontal). The occipital lobes which are located posteriorly at the back of the head are
responsible for initially processing visual inputs, sound sensation while the temporal lobes located at the side
of the head initially receive the visual and the sound sensation. The parietal and frontal lobes located on the
top of the head are separated by deep infoldings, the central sulcus which runs roughly down the middle of
the lateral surface if each hemisphere. The parietal lobes lie to the rear of the central sulcus and the frontal
lobe lies in front of it. Parietal lobes are primarily responsible for receiving and processing sensory inputs from
the surface of the body such as sensations of touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain i.e. somesthetic sensation
(body feelings). The parietal lobe also perceives awareness of body position (proprioception).
The somatosensory cortex which is the site for initial cortical processing of these somesthetic and
proprioceptive inputs is located at the front of each parietal lobe immediately behind the central sulcus. Each
region within the somatosensory cortex receives sensory inputs from a specific area of the body (note that
the body is represented upside down on the somatosensory cortex and more importantly that different parts
of the body are not equally represented). The exaggerated sides of the cortex that is responsible for the face,
tongue, hand and genitalia is indicative of the high degree of sensory perception associated with these body
parts. The somatosensory cortex on each side of the brain for the most part receives sensory inputs from
opposite sides of the body because most of the ascending pathway carrying sensory information up the spinal
cord, cross over to the opposite side before eventually terminating in the cortex. Thus, damage to the left
half of the somatosensory cortex produce sensory defects on the right side of the body and vice versa.
Simple awareness of touch, pressure or temperature is detected by the thalamus which is a lower level of the
brain but the somatosensory cortex goes beyond pure recognition to fuller sensory perception. The
somatosensory cortex localizes the source of the sensory input and perceive the level of the intensity of the
stimulus. It is also capable of spatial discrimination so it can discern the shape of an object being held and can
distinguish differences and similarities between object that come in contact with the skin or with the body.
The somatosensory cortex projects the sensory inputs via white matter to adjacent higher sensory areas for
even further elaboration, analysis and integration of sensory information. These higher areas are important
in the perceptions of complex patterns of somatosensory stimulation. For example, for simultaneous
acquisition of pressure, shape, firmness, temperature, position, location of the object held.
The frontal lobes lie at the front of the cortex and are responsible for 3 (three) main functions:
1. Voluntary motor activities

2. Speaking activity
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3. Elaboration of thoughts
The area at the rear of the frontal lobes immediately in front of the central sulcus adjacent to the
somatosensory cortex is the primary motor cortex. It confines voluntary control over movement produced
by skeletal muscles. Neuronal tracts originating in the motor cortex of the left hemisphere cross over before
passing down the spinal cord to terminate on the efferent motor neurons that trigger skeletal muscle
contraction on the right side of the body. Thus, damage of the motor cortex in the left side of the brain
produces paralysis on the right side of the body and vice versa.
Stimulations of the different areas of the primary motor cortex brings about movement of different regions
of the body upside down and distorted. The fingers and the tongues as well as the muscle important in speech
especially those of the lips and tongues are grossly exaggerated, indicative of the fine degree of motor control
with which these body parts are endowed. Compare this to how little the brain tissue is devoted to the trunk,
arms and the lower extremities which are not capable of such complex movements. Thus, the extent of
representation in the motor cortex is proportional to the fineness and complexity of motor skill required of
the respective parts.
Other regions of the nervous system beside the primary motor cortex are important in motor control:
1. The lower brain region and the spinal cord control involuntary skeletal motor activities e.g. postural
maintenance. The lower brain region and the spinal cord also play an important role in monitoring
and coordinating voluntary motor activities that have been set in motion by the primary motor
cortex.
2. The motor cortex itself does not initiates voluntary movement. The motor cortex is activated by a
widespread pattern of neuronal discharge called the readiness potential which occurs at about 750
milliseconds before specific electrical activity is detectable in the motor cortex.
3. The higher motor areas which are the supplementary motor area, the premotor cortex and the
posterior parietal cortex. These areas command the primary cortex for action.
4. The cerebellum plays an important role in the planning, initiation and timing of movements by
sending inputs to the motor areas of the cortex.
These 4 regions of the brain are important in programming and cultivating complex movements involving
simultaneous contractions of many muscles. The supplementary motor areas lie on the medial surface of each
hemisphere anteriorly to the primary motor cortex. It plays a preparatory role in programming complex
sequence of movements. Lesions here do not result in paralysis but they do interfere with performance of
more complex useful integrated movements. The premotor cortex located on the lateral surface of each
hemisphere in front of the primary motor cortex is important in orientating the body and arms towards a
specific target. These two higher motor areas have many anatomical interconnections and interrelated
functionally. With damage to either of this area, the individual cannot process complex sensory information
to accomplish purposeful movements in a spatial context e.g. reading and eating.
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Thus, initiation and execution of purposeful voluntary movement actually include a complex neuronal
interplay involving output from the motor regions guided by integrated sensory input information and
automatically dependent on motivational system and elaborations of thought played against a background
of memory stores from which a meaningful decision about desirable movements are being made. Note that
somatotropic maps vary slightly between individuals and are dynamic and non-static. Language ability has
several discrete components controlled by different regions of the cortex i.e. mainly the left hemisphere in
the vast majority of population and permanently assigned before adolescence. The primary areas of cortical
specialization for language are Broker’s area and Wernicke’s area which are usually developed only in the left
hemisphere. Broker’s area which is responsible for speaking ability is located in the left frontal lobe in close
association with the motor areas of the cortex that controls the muscle necessary for articulation. Wernicke’s
area located in the parieto-temporal region is concerned with language comprehension. It plays a critical role
in understanding both spoken and written messages. Furthermore, it is responsible for formulating coherent
patterns of speech that are transferred via a bundle of fibers to Broker’s area which in turn controls articulation
of the speech. Wernicke’s area also receives inputs from the visual cortex in the occipital lobe, a pathway
important in reading comprehension and in describing objects seen. It also receives inputs from the auditory
cortex in the temporal lobe, a pathway essential for understanding spoken words. Damage to Broker’s area
results in a failure of word formation whereas patients with a lesion in Wernicke’s area cannot understand the
words they see or hear. The motor, sensory and language areas account for only about half ( 1/2) of the total
cerebral cortex. The remaining areas called association areas are involved in higher functions and there are
three (3) association areas:
1. The prefrontal association cortex

2. The parieto-temporal-occipital association complex
3. The limbic association cortex
The prefrontal association cortex is the front portion of the frontal lobes just anterior to the premotor cortex.
The roles are:
1. Planning for voluntary activities.

2. Weighing consequences of future actions and choosing between different options of various social or
physical situation.
3. Personality trait.
Stimulation of this area does not produce any observable effects but defects in this area result in changes in
personality and social behavior.
The parieto-temporal-occipital association cortex is found at the interface of the three (3) lobes for which it
Is names. In this strategic location, the pull and integrate somatic, auditory and visual sensation projected
from those three lobes for complex perceptual processing. It enables us to get the complete relationship of
various parts of our body with the external world e.g. viewing an object from any angle or location. This
region is also involved in the language pathway connecting the Wernicke’s area to the visual and the auditory
cortex.
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The limbic association cortex is located mostly in the bottom and adjoining inner portion of each temporal
lobes. This area is concerned primarily with motivation, emotion and is extremely involved in memory. All
association areas appear to be involved in sophisticated mental events such as memory, thinking, decision
making, creativity and self-consciousness. None of those higher brain functions are controlled by a specific
cortical region. Collectively, the association areas integrate diverse information for purposeful action.
Note: The left hemisphere excels in the performance of logical, analytical, sequential and verbal tasks such as
mathematics, language forms and philosophy whereas the right hemisphere excels in non-language skills
especially in spatial and artistic and musical endeavors.
The left hemisphere processes information in a fragmentary way whereas the right hemisphere fills the words
holistically. Left cerebral hemisphere dominance tends to be associated with thinkers whereas the right
hemisphere skills dominate in creators.
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
This is the record of post-synaptic activities in the cortical neurons. Extracellular current flow arising from
electrical activities within the cerebral cortex can be detected via placement of the recording electrodes on
the scalp to produce a graphic makeup known as an electroencephalogram. The wave form varies depending
on the degree of cerebral cortex activities. Often, the waveform appears irregular but sometimes, distinct
patterns can be observed on the wave’s amplitude and frequencies. The EEG has three (3) major uses:
1. It is often used as a clinical tool in the diagnosis of cerebral misfunction. Disease or damage to cortical
tissue often give rise to altered EEG patterns e.g. in epilepsy which can be partial or generalized
depending on the location and extent of the abnormal neuronal areas. Each type of seizure displays
different EEG patterns.
2. The EEG is used to distinguish various stages of sleep.
3. The EEG is used in the legal determination of brain death i.e. when there is electrocerebral silence, a
patient can be pronounced dead.
SUBCORTICAL STRUCTURES
BASAL NUCLEI/GANGLIA
The basal nuclei consist of several masses of grey matter located deep within the cerebral white matter. Note
that in the brain, a nucleus is a functional aggregation of neuronal cell bodies. The basal nuclei consist of the
following:
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Putamen
3. Globus pallidus
4. Claustrum
They play a complex role in the control of movements in addition to having non-motor functions. The basal
nuclei are important in:
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1. Inhibiting muscle tones throughout the body
2. Help in monitoring and coordinating slow sustained contractions especially those related to posture
and support.
3. Help in selecting and maintaining purposeful motor activities while suppressing useless and unwanted
patterns of movement.
The basal ganglia receive and send out much information as it’s indicated by the tremendous number of fibers
linking them to the regions of the brain. One important pathway consists of strategic interconnections that
form a complex feedback loop linking the cerebral cortex, the basal nuclei and the thalamus. The thalamus
positively reinforces voluntary motor behavior initiated by the cortex whereas the basal nuclei modulates
these activities by exerting an inhibitory effect on the thalamus to eliminate antagonistic and unnecessary
movement. The basal nuclei also exert an inhibitory effect on motor activities by acting through the neurons
in the brainstem. The importance of the basal ganglia in motor control is evident in diseases involving this
region, the most common of which is Parkinson’s disease. This disease is a condition associated with a
deficiency of dopamine neurotransmitter. Three types of motor disturbance characterize Parkinson’s disease:
1. Involuntary, useless or unwanted movements such as resting tremor e.g. hand rhythmically shaking
while making it difficult for a patient to hold a cup of tea.
2. Increased muscle tone (rigidity).
3. Slowness in initiating or carrying out different motor behavior.
It is difficult for those who suffer from Parkinson’s disease to stop ongoing activities.
The principal parts of the

diencephalon and basal
ganglia (coronal section)
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DIENCEPHALON
Deep within the brain near the basal nuclei is the diencephalon. This diencephalon is a midline structure that
forms the walls of the third ventricle cavity. The diencephalon consists of two main parts:
1. The thalamus
2. The hypothalamus
The thalamus serves as a relay station and it is the synaptic integrating center for preliminary processing of all
sensory inputs on its way to the cortex. Thalamus screens out insignificant signals and routes the important
sensory impulses to appropriate areas of the somatosensory cortex as well as to other regions of the brain.
The thalamus along with the brainstem and cortical association areas is important in our ability to direct
attention to stimulus of interest. The thalamus is also capable of crude awareness of the various types of
sensation but cannot distinguish their location or intensity. Some degree of consciousness resides at the
thalamus as well. The thalamus also plays an important role in motor controls.
The hypothalamus is a collection of specific nuclei and associated fibers that lie beneath the thalamus. It is an
integrating center for many important homeostatic functions and serves as an important link between the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. Specifically, the hypothalamus controls:
1. Body temperature
2. Thirstiness
3. Urine output
4. Food intake
5. Anterior pituitary secretion
6. Produces posterior pituitary secretory hormones
7. Controls uterine contractions
8. Controls milk ejection;
And serves as a major autonomic nervous system coordinating center which in turn affects all smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles and exocrine glands. Lastly, hypothalamus plays a role in emotional and behavioral
patterns including psychosomatic events. The hypothalamus is the area of the brain most notably involved in
the direct regulation of the internal environment.
Hypothalamus which as a part of the limbic system, functions in conjunction with the cortex in controlling
emotions and motivated behavior.
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system is not a separate structure. It refers to a ring of forebrain structures that surround the
brainstem and that are interconnected by intricate neuronal pathways. It includes portions of each of the
following:
1. The lobes of the cerebral cortex

2. The basal nuclei
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3. The thalamus
4. The hypothalamus
Anatomy of the limbic system, shown in the dark pink area

This complex interacting network is associated with emotion, basic survival and sociosexual behavioral
pattern, motivation and learning. The limbic system consists of the hypothalamus, the corpus callosum, the
mammillary body, the hippocampus, the amygdala and part of the temporal lobes, the olfactory bulb, the
fornix and cingulate gyrus.
EMOTION
The concept of emotion encompasses subjective emotional feelings such as anger, fear and happiness plus the
overt physical responses that occur in association with these feelings. These responses include specific
behavioral pattern e.g. preparation for attacks or defenses or observable emotional expressions like laughing,
crying. Stimulation of specific regions within the limbic system during surgical produces various vague
subjective sensations described by the patient as joy, satisfaction or pleasure in one region and
discouragement, fear or anxiety in another region. Behavioral patterns controlled at least in part by the limbic
system include those aimed at survival of the individual and these include attack or defense or search for food
and those directed towards perpetuation of the species i.e. sociosexual behavior.
Stimulations of the amygdala induce sexual behavior such as copulatory movement. Experimental lesion in
amygdala can alter sexual behavior so that the animal attempts. The increased heart rate, respiratory rate,
elevation of blood pressure and diversion of blood to skeletal muscles that occurs with association to attack
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or defense when angered are controlled by the hypothalamus. The cortex provides the neuronal mechanisms
necessary for the implementation of the appropriate skeletal muscle activities required to approach or avoid
an adversary, participate in sexual activities or display emotional expressions.
MOTIVATION AND LEARNING
Motivated behavior and learning are influenced by reward and punishment. The most important factor
responsible for the desire and ability to alter inborn is learning from experience. An individual tends to
reinforce that have proved to be gratifying and suppress behaviors associated with unpleasant experiences.
Certain regions of the limbic system have been designated as “reward” and “punishment” centers because
stimulation of these respective areas give rise to pleasant and unpleasant sensation. Reward centers are found
most abundantly in regions involved in mediating the highly motivated behavioral activities of eating,
drinking and sexual activities.
Motivation is the ability to direct behavior towards a specific goal. Some goal-directed are aimed at satisfying
specific identifiable physical needs related to homeostasis e.g. when one is thirsty. Much of human behavior
is not dependent on purely homeostasis drive related to simple tissue defect such as thirstiness but it is
influenced by experience, learning and habit, shaped in a complex framework of unique personal gratifications
blended with cultural expectations. Norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin serve as neurotransmitter in
motivated behavior and emotional pathways.
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skill as a consequence of experience, instruction or both. When
behavior responses that give rise to pleasure are reinforced and those that give rise to punishment are avoided,
learning has taken place.
MEMORY
Memory is the storage of acquired knowledge for a later recall. Learning and memory form the basis by which
individuals adapt to their particular external circumstances. The neural changes responsible for retention or
storage of knowledge is known as memory tract or engram. Storage of acquired information is accomplished
in at least two stages:
1. Short-term memory
2. Long-term memory
Short-term memory lasts for seconds or hours whereas long-term memory is retained for days to years. The
transfer or fixation of short-term memory stores is known as consolidation. Newly acquired information is
initially deposited in short-term memory which has a limited capacity for storage. Information in short-term
memory has one of the two eventual fates:
1. It would be forgotten e.g. phone number from a distant relation.

2. It is transferred into the more permanent long-term memory mode through active practice or
rehearsals.
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Recycling of newly acquired information through short-term memory increases the likelihood of long-term
memory consolidation and this can be likened to photography. Information of interest or importance to
individual is more likely to be recycled and fixed into long-term memory stores whereas less important
information is quickly erased. The long-term memory bank has a much larger storage capacity. Different
informational aspects of long-term memory received, seem to be processed and codified then stored in
conjunction with other memories of the same type e.g. visual memories are stored separately from auditory
memories. This facilitates future searching of memory stores at a later rate for retrieval of desired information
e.g. in remembering a man once met, you may use various recall clues from different storage pools such as
the name, what he looked like, the cloth he had on, what song was playing in the background when you met
him.
Because long-term memory stores are larger, it takes longer to retrieve information from long-term memory
than from short-term memory. Remembering is the process of retrieving specific information from memory
stores. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve stored information. Information lost from short-term memory
is permanently forgotten but information in long-term stores is frequently forgotten only transiently. Some
form of long-term memory involving information or skill used on a daily basis are essentially never forgotten
and are rapidly accessible. Occasionally, individuals suffer from a lack of memory known as amnesia which
occurs in two forms;
1. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall recent past events. It usually follows a traumatic event that
interferes with electrical activity of the brain e.g. stroke.
2. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store memory in a long-term storage for later retrieval. It is
usually associated with lesions of the medial portion of the temporal lobes which are generally
considered to be cortical regions for memory consolidation.
The regions of the brain implicated in memory include the temporal lobes and other regions of the cerebral
cortex, the limbic system and the cerebellum. The temporal lobes and hippocampus (a part of the limbic
system) are essential for transferring new memories into long-term memory. Lesions of the temporal lobes
and closely associated structures result in deficit in declarative memory. In contrast, the cerebellum seems to
play an essential role in procedural memories involving motor skills gained via repetitive training e.g. a
particular dancing step.
The cerebral cortex is not seen to be directly essential for many types of learning and memory except to help
focus attention but plays a direct role only in memories that involve language, complex spatial information
and other skills that are finally interpreted at the cortical level.
CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is attached to the back of the upper portion of the brainstem lying underneath the occipital
lobe. It is concerned primarily with motor activities yet like the basal ganglia or nuclei, it does not have any
direct influence on the efferent neurons. It functions indirectly by modifying the output of major motor
systems in the brain. The cerebellum consists of three functional distinct parts which developed successfully
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during evolution. The parts have different set of inputs and outputs and accordingly, each have different
functions;
1. The vestibulocerebellum is important for the maintenance of balance and the control of eye
movements.
2. The spinocerebellum regulates muscle tones coordinate skilled voluntary movements. When cortical
motor areas send messages to muscles for the execution of a particular movement, the
spinocerebellum is also informed of the intended motor command. In addition, this region receives
inputs from peripheral receptors that appraise it of what is taking place regarding body movement and
position. The spinocerebellum essentially acts as a middle management comparing the intentions or
orders of the higher centers with the performance of the muscle and correcting any error or deviation
from the intended movement. The spinocerebellum is able to predict the future position of a body
part in the next fraction of a second to make adjustment accordingly. These ongoing adjustments
which assure smooth, precise, directed movements are essentially important for rapidly changing
activities i.e. phasic activities e.g. activities like typing, playing a piano, running.
3. Cerebrocerebellum plays a role in the planning and initiation of voluntary activities by providing
inputs to the cortical motor areas. This is also the cerebella region involved in procedural memories.
The cerebellum
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Symptoms that characterize cerebella damage or disease are all referable to all of these functions:
1. Poor balance
2. Reduced motor tone but no paralysis
3. Nystagmus i.e. rhythmic oscillatory eye movement
4. Inability to perform rapid eye movement smoothly
5. Inability to start or stop skeletal muscle action quickly called intention tremor. This intention tremor
is characterized by oscillatory TO and FRO movement of a limb as it approaches its intended
destination. No tremor is observed except in the performance of intentional activities in contrast to
the resting tremor associated with the disease of the basal ganglia.
The cerebellum helps maintain balance, smooth out-fast phasic motor activities and enhanced muscle tone
while basal nuclei are important in coordinating slow sustained movements related to posture and support
and they also function in improving muscle tone. Even though the motor command for a particular motor
activity arises from the motor cortex, coordination of the actual execution of that activity is accomplished
subconsciously by subcortical regions especially the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
THE BRAINSTEM
The brainstem which consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain is a critical connecting
link between the remainder of the brain and the spinal cord. All fibers traversing between the periphery and
the higher brain center must pass through the brainstem. Some relaying sensory information to the brain,
others carry command signals from the brain to efferent outputs. The functions of the brainstem include the
following:
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1. The majority of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brainstem with 1 major exception. These
nerves containing sensory and motor fibers that supply structures in the head and neck. They are
important in the functions of sight, hearing, taste, smell, sensations of the face and scalp, eyes
movement, chewing, swallowing, facial expression and salivation. The major exception is the CN X
(vagus nerve). Instead of innervating regions of head, most of the branches supply structures in the
thoracic region and the abdominal cavity. The vagus nerve is the major nerve of the parasympathetic
nervous system.
2. Collected within the brainstem are neuronal clusters or centers that control heart and blood vessels
functions, respiratory and many digestive activities.
3. The brainstem region plays a role in modulating the sense of pain.
4. Running throughout the entire brainstem and into the thalamus is an incredible widespread network
of interconnected neurons called the reticular formation. This network receives and integrates all
synaptic inputs.
Ascending fibers originating in the reticular formation carry signals upward to arouse and activate the
cerebral cortex. These fibers compose the reticular activating system (RAS) which controls the overall
degree of cortical alertness and is important in the ability to direct attention towards specific events.
5. The reticular formation is also important in controlling motor activities, particularly regulation of
muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and support of the body against gravity.
6. The reticular activating system (RAS) are the centers responsible for sleep.
Consciousness refers to subjective awareness of the external world and self, including awareness of the private
inner world of one’s mind i.e. awareness of thoughts, perceptions, dreams, feelings etc. No one has an idea
of the neuronal mechanism that gives rise to conscious awareness. The final level of awareness resides in the
cerebral cortex and a crude sensation of awareness is detected by the thalamus. Conscious experience depends
on the integrated functioning of many parts of the nervous system. The following various states of
consciousness are listed based on the extent of interaction between peripheral stimuli and the brain in
decreasing order of level of arousal;
1. Maximum alertness
2. Wakefulness
3. Sleep
4. Coma
Maximum alertness is dependent on attention getting sensory input that energizes the reticular activating
system (RAS) and subsequently the level of activities of the central nervous system as a whole. At the other
extreme end, coma refers to total unresponsiveness of a living person to external stimuli caused by either
brainstem damage that interferes with the reticular activating system (RAS) or by widespread depression of
the cerebral cortex as a whole, such as damage accomplished by oxygen and glucose deprivation.
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SLEEP
The sleep-wake cycle is a normal cyclical variation in awareness of the surroundings. Sleeping individuals are
not consciously aware of the external world but they do have inward conscious experiences such as dreams
and they can be aroused by external stimuli such as an alarm clock. Sleep is an active process consisting of an
alternating period of slow-wave and paradoxical sleep. The brain’s overall level of activities is not reduced
during sleep. During certain stages of sleep, oxygen uptake by the brain is even increased above normal awaken
levels. There are 2 types of sleep characterized by different EEG patterns and different behaviors;
1. Slow-wave sleep occurs in 4 stages, each displaying progressively slower EEG wave patterns of higher
amplitude. At the onset of sleep, an individual move from light sleep of stage one to deep sleep of
stage four during a period of 30-45 minutes then reverse through the same stages in the same amount
of time.
2. A 10-15 minutes episode of paradoxical sleep or REM sleep punctuates the end of each slow-wave
sleep cycles. Paradoxically, the EEG pattern of the REM sleep is similar to that of a wide-awake
individual even though the person is still asleep.
A person cyclically alternates between the two types of sleep throughout the night. Towards morning, the
episodes of paradoxical sleep occur more frequently and last longer whereas the deeper stages of the slow-
wave sleep disappear. On the average, paradoxical sleep occupies 20% of the total sleeping time throughout
adolescence and most of adulthood. Infants spend considerably more time in paradoxical sleep. In contrast,
paradoxical as well as stage 4 slow-wave sleep decline in the elderly.
Paradoxical sleep can even be considered as the deepest sleep since it is harder to arouse sleepers from this
stage. Also, it is the lightest sleep since sleepers are more likely to be awakened on their own. Several other
observations support the proposal that paradoxical sleep is the deepest sleep;
1. In a normal sleep cycle, a person normally passes through slow-wave sleep before entering paradoxical.
2. Individuals who require total less sleeping time than normal spend more time on paradoxical sleep and
less time in slow-wave sleep.
It is difficult to pinpoint exactly when an individual drift from drowsiness into slow-wave sleep 2. In this type
of sleep, the person has considerable muscle tone and frequently shift body position, only minor reduction
in breathing rate, heart rate and blood pressure occur. During this time, the sleeper can be easily awakened
and rarely dreams. People who walk and/or talk freely in their sleep do so during slow-wave sleep.
The behavior pattern accompanying paradoxical sleep is marked by inhibitions of muscle tone throughput
the body. The muscles are completely relaxed with no movement taking place. It is characterized by rapid eye
movement. The heart rate and respiratory rate becomes irregular and blood pressure may fluctuate. The
sleeper is temporarily unable to regulate body temperature which begins to change in the direction of the
room temperature. This is the period for dream (especially dreams that cannot be remembered when woken
up).
The sleep-wake cycle is being controlled by interactions among three brainstem regions;
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1. An arousal system which is part of the reticular activating system.
2. A slow-wave sleep center.
3. A paradoxical sleep center.
Human spend about 1/3 of their lives sleeping. Sleep is necessary to allow the brain to shift gears in order to
accomplish the long-term structural and chemical adjustments necessary for learning and memory. This
might explain why infants require so much sleep.
SLEEP DISORDERS
1. Narcolepsy: This is unusual sleep behavior and it is called sleep attack. The individual that suffers this
can sleep anytime and anywhere.
2. Insomnia: lack of sleep
3. Catalepsy: This is sleeping in an unusual posture.
Other sleep disorders include: bedwetting, sleepwalking, sleep-talking, nightmares.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord extends throughout the vertebral canal and is connected to the spinal nerves. This is about
45cm long and 2cm in diameter exiting through a large hole in the base of the skull. The spinal cord descends
through the vertebral canal enclosed in the surrounding protecting vertebral column. Paired spinal nerves
emerge from the spinal cord through spaces formed between the bony wing-like arches of the adjacent
vertebrae. The spinal nerves are named according to the region of the spinal cord from which they arise i.e. 8
pairs of cervical nerves (C1-C8), 12 thoracic nerves (T1-T12), 5 lumbar nerves (L1-L5), 5 sacral nerves (S1-S5)
and 1 coccygeal nerve.
During development, the vertebral column grows about 25cm longer than the spinal cord. Because of this
differential growth, segments of the spinal cord that give rise to the various spinal nerves are not aligned with
the corresponding intervertebral spaces. Most of the spinal nerves’ roots descend along the cord before
emerging from the vertebra at the corresponding space.
The spinal cord itself extends only to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra so the nerve roots of the
remaining lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves are greatly elongated in order to exit the vertebra column at
the appropriate space. This thick bundle of elongated nerve roots within the lower vertebral column is cauda
equina (i.e. horsetail) because of its appearance. This region is used for spinal taps to obtain a sample of
cerebrospinal fluid. Although, there are some slight regional varieties, the cross-sectional anatomy of the
spinal cord is generally the same throughout its length. Unlike the brain, the grey matter in the spinal cord
forms a butterfly-shaped region on the inside that is surrounded by the outer white matter. As in the brain,
the spinal cord grey matter consists primarily of neuronal cell bodies and their dendrites, short interneurons
and the glial cells.
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The white matter is organized into tracts which are bundles of nerve fibers with a similar function. The bundles
are grouped into columns that extend the length of the spinal cord. Each of these tracts begins or ends within
a particular area of the brain and each tract is specific in the type of information it transmits. We have:
1. Ascending tracts i.e. cords to the brain which transmits information to the brain. Those are signals
derived from the afferent inputs.
2. Descending tracts i.e. cord fibers from the brain relay messages from the brain to efferent neurons.
The tracts are named from their origin and termination e.g. the corticospinal tract is a descending pathway.
Its cell bodies originate primarily in the motor regions of the cerebral cortex and its axons travel down to
terminate in the spinal cord on the cell bodies of the efferent motor neurons supplying skeletal muscles.
In contrast, the lateral spinothalamic tract is an ascending pathway that originates in the spinal cord and runs
laterally through the cord until its synapses in the thalamus. Spinothalamic tract carries sensory information
about pain and temperature that have been delivered from various regions of the body through the spinal
cord to the thalamus which in turn sorts and relays the information to the somatosensory cortex. Note that
various types of signals are segregated within the spinal cord and accordingly, damage to particular areas of
the spinal cord can interfere with some functions while others remain intact.
The centrally located grey matter is functionally organized. The central canal which is filled with cerebrospinal
fluid lie in the center of the grey matter. Each half of the grey matter is divided into posterior or dorsal
root/horn, ventral or anterior root/horn, lateral horn or root. The dorsal horn contains cell bodies of
interneurons upon which afferent neurons terminate. The ventral or anterior root contains cell bodies of the
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efferent motor neurons supplying skeletal bodies. Autonomic nervous system fibers supplying cardiac,
smooth muscles and exocrine glands originate at cell bodies found in the lateral horns. Spinal nerves attach
to each side of the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a ventral root i.e. afferent fibers enter the spinal cord
through the dorsal root while the efferent fibers leave through the ventral root. The dorsal and ventral roots
at each level, join to form the spinal nerve that emerges from the vertebral column. A spinal nerve contains
both afferent and efferent fibers traversing a particular region of the body and spinal cord.
The 31 pairs of spinal nerves along with 12 pairs of cranial nerves that arise from the brain constitutes the
peripheral nervous system. Each segment of spinal cord gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves that ultimately
supply a particular region of the body with both afferent and efferent fibers. Thus, the location and extent of
sensory and motor deficit associated with spinal cord injuries can be used in determining the level and extent
of the spinal cord injury. Each specific region of the body surface supplied by a particular spinal nerve is called
a dermatome. When these same spinal nerves also carry fibers that branch off to supply internal organs and
sometimes, pain originating from one of these organs is referred to the corresponding dermatome supplied
by the same spinal nerve e.g. referred pain originating in the heart may appear to come from the left shoulder
or arm.
The spinal cord is strategically located between the brain and the afferent and efferent fibers of the peripheral
nervous system so that the spinal cord may be able to perform its two major primary functions;
1. Serving as a link for transmission of information between the brain and remainder of the body.
2. Integrating reflex activity between afferent inputs and efferent outputs without involving the brain
(called spinal reflex).
SPINAL REFLEX
A reflex is any response that occurs automatically without conscious effort. There are two types of reflexes:
1. Simple reflexes or basic reflexes which are in-built. They are unlearned responses. An example is the
ability to close the eyes when an object is about to pop-in.
2. Acquired or conditioned reflexes which are a result of practice or learning e.g. ability to drive.
The neural pathway involved in accomplishing reflex activities is known as reflex arc which topically includes
the five following basic components:
1. Receptor
2. Afferent pathway
3. Integrating center
4. Efferent pathway
5. Effector
The receptors respond to a stimulus which is a detectable physical or chemical change in the environment of
the receptor. In response to the stimulus, the receptor produces an action potential that is relayed by the
afferent pathway to the integrating center for processing. Usually, the integrating center is the central nervous
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
system i.e. the spinal cord and the brainstem are responsible for the integration of the basic or simple reflexes
whereas higher brain levels usually process acquired reflexes. The integrating center processes all information
available to it from the receptor as well as from other inputs then makes a decision about the appropriate
response. The instructions from the integrating center are transmitted via the efferent pathway to the effector
(either a muscle or gland) which carries out the desired response unlike conscious behavior in which any one
of the number of responses is possible. A reflex response is predictable because the pathway between the
receptor and effector is the same. A basic spinal reflex is the one that is integrated by the spinal cord i.e. all
components necessary for linking afferent inputs to efferent responses are present within the spinal cord e.g.
a withdrawal reflex. The withdrawal reflex illustrates a basic or simple spinal reflex e.g. when a person touches
a hot object i.e. painful stimulus, a reflex is initiated to pull the hand away from the hot object i.e. to withdraw
from a painful stimulus.
The skin has different receptors for warmth, cold, light touch, pressure and pain even though all information
is sent to the central nervous system by way of coding (action potential). The central nervous system can
distinguish between various stimuli because different receptors are involved and consequently, different
afferent pathways are activated by different stimuli. When a receptor is stimulated sufficiently to reach
threshold, an action potential is generated in the afferent neuron. The stronger the stimulation, the stronger
the stimulus, the greater the frequency of the action potential generated.
Once the afferent neurons enter the spinal cord, it diverges to synapse with the different interneurons in this
order:
1. It stimulates some interneurons that in turn stimulate the efferent motor neurons supplying the
biceps muscle (the muscle in the arm that flexes the elbow joint). The resultant contraction of the
biceps pulls the hand away from the hot object.
2. It stimulates other interneurons and in turn inhibit the efferent neurons supplying the triceps muscle
to prevent it from contracting. The triceps is the muscle in the hand that extends the elbow joint.
When the biceps is contracting to flex the elbow, built into the withdrawal reflex is inhibitions of the
muscle that antagonizes the withdrawal response. This type of neuronal connection involving
stimulations of the nerve supply to one muscle and simultaneously inhibiting the nerve to the
antagonistic muscle is called reciprocal innervation.
3. It stimulates other interneurons that carry the signal up the spinal cord to the brain via the ascending
pathway. Only when the impulse reaches the sensory area of the cortex is the person aware of the pain,
its location and the type of the stimulus. Also, when the impulse reaches the brain, the information
can be stored as a memory and the person can start thinking about the situation. All these activities
at the conscious level is above and beyond the basic reflexes.
As it is the characteristics of all spinal reflexes, the brain can influence the withdrawal reflex. Impulses may be
sent down descending pathways to the efferent neurons supplying the involved muscles to override the inputs
from the receptors, actually preventing the biceps from contracting in spite of the painful stimulus e.g.
pricking finger to obtain blood sample. Pain receptors are stimulated and initiate the withdrawal reflex.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
However, you can consciously override the reflex by sending inhibitory post synaptic potentials (IPSPs) via
descending pathways to the motor neurons supplying the biceps muscle and excitatory post synaptic
potentials (EPSPs) to those supplying the triceps muscle thereby overriding the withdrawal reflex.
The activities in these efferent neurons depend on the sum of activities of all their synaptic inputs because the
neurons supplying the biceps are now receiving IPSPs from the brain (i.e. voluntary) than EPSPs from the
afferent pain pathways. These neurons are inhibited and do not reach threshold. Therefore, the biceps is not
stimulated to contract and to withdraw the hand. Simultaneously, the neurons to the triceps are receiving
more EPSPs from the brain than IPSPs via the reflex arc so they reach threshold, fire, and consequently
stimulate the triceps to contract thus keeping the arm extended inspite of the painful stimulus. In this way,
the withdrawal reflex is voluntarily overridden.
The stretch reflex is simpler than the withdrawal reflex in which an afferent neuron originating at a stretch-
detecting receptor in a skeletal muscle terminates directly on the efferent neurons supplying the same skeletal
muscle to cause it to contract and counter-act the stress. This is a monosynaptic reflex because the only
synapse in the reflex arc is the one between the afferent and the efferent neurons. The withdrawal reflex and
all other reflexes are polysynaptic because interneurons are interposed in the reflex pathway and therefore, a
number of synapses are involved.
Spinal reflex action is not necessarily limited to motor responses on the side of the body to which the stimulus
is applied. For example, assuming stepping on a burning object, a reflex arc is initiated to withdraw the injured
foot from the painful stimulus while the opposite leg simultaneously prepares to suddenly bear the weight so
that the person does not lose balance and fall. Unimpeded bending of the injured knee is accomplished by
concurrent reflex stimulations of the muscle that flex the knee and inhibitions of the muscles that extend the
knee. At the same time, unimpeded extension of the opposite knee is accomplished by activations of pathways
that crossover to the opposite side of the spinal cord to reflexively stimulate the knee extensors and inhibit
its flexors. This crossed extensor reflex assures that the opposite limbs will be in a position to bear the weight
of the body as the injured limb is withdrawn from the stimulus.
Beside protective reflexes such as withdrawal reflex and simple postural reflexes such as crossed extensor reflex,
basic spinal reflexes also mediate emptying of pelvic organ e.g. urination, defecation and expulsion of semen.
All spinal reflexes can be voluntarily overridden at least temporarily. The two general ways in which pathways
for unconscious responsiveness digress from tropical reflex arc are:
1. Responses mediated at least in part by hormones.

2. Local responses that don't involve either nerves or hormones e.g. the blood vessels in an exercising
muscle dilate because of the local metabolic changes thereby increasing blood flow to match the active
muscle’s metabolic rate.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
RECEPTORS
Afferent neurons have receptors at their peripheral endings that appraise the central nervous system of
detectable changes called stimuli in both the external world and internal environment by generating action
potentials in response to the stimuli. These action potentials are transmitted via the afferent fibers to the
central nervous system. Stimuli exist in a variety of energy forms called modalities such as heat, light, sound,
pressure and chemical changes because the only way the body can transmit information to the central nervous
system is via action potential propagation. Receptors must convert these other forms of energy into electrical
energy (transduction).
Each type of receptor is specialized to respond more rapidly to one type of stimulus, its adequate stimulus
than any other stimuli. For example, eyes are for sight because of the presence of photoreceptors and the ears
are for hearing because there are ear cells that respond to displacement by sound waves and this is known as
the law of specific nerve energies. Note that the sensations perceived depend on the type of receptors
stimulated rather than on the type of the stimulus.
TYPES OF RECEPTORS BASED ON ENERGY RESPONSE

Depending on the type of energy to which they can respond, receptors are categorized as follows:
1. Photoreceptors: They are responsive to light, abundant in eyes where rods and cones are present.
2. Mechanoreceptors: They are sensitive to mechanical energy e.g. skeletal muscle receptors are sensitive
to stress, ear receptors are sensitive to sound waves and blood pressure sensitive receptors called
baroreceptors.
3. Thermoreceptors: They are sensitive to heat or cold.
4. Chemoreceptors: They are sensitive to specific chemicals e.g. receptors for smell and taste, receptors
that detect O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood and the receptors that detect the chemical content
of the digestive tract.
5. Nociceptors (pain receptors): They are sensitive to tissue damage e.g. pinching, burning or distortion
of tissue. Note that intensive stimulation of any receptor is also perceived as painful.
Some sensations are compound sensations in that their perceptions arise from central integrations of several
simultaneously activated primary sensory inputs e.g. the perceptions of wetness come from touch, pressure
and thermal receptors. The information detected by receptors is conveyed via afferent neurons to the central
nervous system where it is used for variety of purposes;
1. Afferent input is essential for the control of efferent output both for regulation of motor behavior in
accordance with external circumstances and for coordination of internal activities directed towards
maintenance of homeostasis.
2. Processing of sensory inputs by the reticular activating system in the brainstem is critical for cortical
arousal and consciousness.
3. Central processing of sensory information gives rise to our perceptions of the world around us.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
4. Finally, selected information delivered to the central nervous system may be stored for future
reference.
Note that the stimulus intensity is distinguished both by frequency of action potentials generated in the
afferent neuron which is the frequency code and by the number of receptors activated within the area called
the population code.
Some receptors have the ability to diminish their extent of depolarization inspite of a sustained stimulus
strength. Subsequently, decreasing the frequency of action potential generated in the afferent neuron i.e.
the receptors can adapt to the stimulus and by so doing, no longer responding to it to the same degree.
TYPES OF RECEPTORS BASED ON ADAPTATION SPEED

There are two types of receptors based on speed of adaptation; tonic receptors and phasic receptors.
1. Tonic Receptors: Tonic receptors do not adapt or adapt slowly since the central nervous system must
be continually appraised of the degree of muscle length and joint position to maintain posture and
balance. It is important therefore that these receptors do not adapt to a stimulus but continue to
generate action potential to relay this information to the CNS.
2. Phasic Receptors: They are rapidly adapting receptors. They often exhibit an off-response. They are
useful in situations in which it is important to signal a change in stimulus intensity rather than to relay
status quo information e.g. Pacinian corpuscles adapt rapidly hence you're not continually conscious
of wearing a wristwatch, ring or clothing. When you put something on, you should become
accustomed to it because the Pacinian corpuscle rapidly adapts. When you take the item off, you're
aware of the removal because of the off-response.
The incoming pathway for unconscious information derived from internal viscera through the viscera
afferents that propagates information to the conscious level of the brain is called sensory information.
Sensory information is categorized into either somatic information and special sensations which include
seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.
The afferent neuron with its peripheral receptors that first detect the stimulus is called first order sensory
neuron. This synapses on a second order sensory neuron either in the spinal cord or in the medulla oblongata
depending on which pathway is involved. This neuron then synapses on the third order sensory neuron in the
thalamus and depends on the number of interneurons involved before it gets integrated at the information
command center. Activation of the sensory pathway at any point gives rise to the same sensation that could
be produced by stimulation of the receptors in the body part itself. This is the basis of phantom pain i.e. pain
perceived as originating in the foot by the person whose leg has been amputated.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
PAIN
Pain is primarily a protective mechanism meant to bring to conscious awareness the fact that tissue damage
is occurring or about to occur. It is accomplished by motivated behavioral responses such as withdrawal or
planning to defend as well as emotional reactions such as crying or fear. The subjective perception of pain can
be modulated by other past or present experiences e.g. lower pain perception in an injured athlete during a
competitive event. There are three categories of pain receptors;
1. Mechanical nociceptors that respond to mechanical damage such as cutting, crushing or pinching.
2. Thermal nociceptors that respond to temperature extremes especially heat.
3. Polymodal nociceptors that respond equally to all kinds of damaging stimuli including irritating
chemicals released from injured tissues.
Nociceptors are all naked nerve endings. They do not adapt to sustained or repetitive stimulation and can be
sensitized by the presence of prostaglandins which greatly enhance response to noxious stimulus i.e. it pains
more when prostaglandins are present. Aspirin-like drugs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins accounting
at least in part, for the drugs' analgesic properties.
Pain impulses originating at nociceptors are transmitted to the central nervous system via one of the two
types of afferent fibers. Signals arising from the mechanical and thermal nociceptors are transmitted over large
myelinated A-∂ fibers at the rate of up to 30m/s i.e. they are fast pain pathways. Impulses from polymodal
nociceptors are carried by small unmyelinated C-fibers at a rate of 1m/s i.e. the slow pain pathway. Pain
typically is perceived initially as a brief, sharp, pricking sensation that is easily localized. This is followed by a
dull, itching and poorly localized sensation that persists for a longer time and is more unpleasant. This slow
pain pathway is activated by a chemical especially bradykinin, a normal inactive substance that is activated by
enzymes released into the ECF from damaged tissues.
The pain primary afferent fibers synapse with specific second order interneurons in the dorsal horns of the
spinal cord. One of the neurotransmitters released from this afferent pain terminal is substance P, which is
believed to be unique to pain fibers. The role of cortex in pain perception is probably important at least in
localizing the pain since pain can still be perceived in the absence of the cortex. The reticular formation
increases the level of alertness associated with noxious encounter. Interconnections from the thalamus and
reticular formation to the hypothalamus and limbic system elicit the behavioral and emotional responses
accompanying the painful experience.
Note that the central nervous system contains a neuronal system that suppresses pain. The neuronal
mechanism that suppresses transmissions in the pain pathway as they enter the spinal cord, electrical
stimulations of the periaqueductal grey matter and reticulation formation results in preformed analgesia.
These two regions are part of a descending analgesic pathway that blocks by presynaptic inhibition, the release
of substance P from afferent pain fiber terminals.
The built-in analgesic system is dependent on the presence of opiate receptors. The endogenous morphine-
like substances (the endorphins and enkephalins) are important in the body's natural analgesic system.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
According to a proposed model for these analgesic systems, an endogenous opiate neurotransmitter
(enkephalin) is released from the descending pathway and binds with opiate receptors on the afferent
presynaptic terminals. This binding suppresses the release of substance P, thereby blocking further
transmission of the pain signal. Morphine binds to this same opiate receptor accounting for its analgesic
property.
Factors known to modulate pain include exercise, acupuncture and hypnosis. Some types of stress induce
analgesia via the opiate pathway. Pain can frequently be managed by drugs that suppress transmitter activities
at some point along the pain pathway. Surgical interventions are occasionally necessary for relief of intractable
pain as may occur in terminally-ill cancer patients. Surgical relief from pain entails either interrupting the
ascending pain pathway within the spinal cord or severing certain pathways in the brain to modify emotional
response to the pain. Note that a painful experience includes the sensation of pain plus an emotional and
behavioral reaction to it. If the emotional and behavioral reaction can be dissociated, the person can feel the
pain but does not mind it as much.
PROF. A. O. AYOKA
REFERENCES:
1. Structure of a neuron, Page 6

Moore Clinical Oriented Anatomy, Seventh Edition, Page 46
2. Glia cells, Page 8
Gray’s Anatomy, Forty-First Edition, Pages 50-53
3. The meninges, Page 9
Gray’s Atlas of Anatomy, Second Edition, Page 490
4. The cerebral cortex, Page 13
Moore Clinical Oriented Anatomy, Seventh Edition, Page 879
5. Layers of the cerebral cortex, Page 14
Gray’s Anatomy, Forty-First Edition, Pages 376
6. Anatomy of the limbic system, Page 18.
Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, thirteenth edition by John E. Hall, Page 754,
Figure 59-4 (Modified from Warwick R, Williams PL: Gray’s Anatomy, 35th ed. London: Longman
Group Ltd, 1973).
7. Diencephalon and basal ganglia, Page 19
Gray’s Anatomy, Forty-First Edition, Pages 351
8. The cerebellum, Page 24
Atlas of Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition by Frank H. Netter, M.D., Plate 114
9. The brainstem, Page 25
10. Nerve roots of the spinal cord, Page 25.
NOTES BY:
AYOKA A.O., B.Sc., M.Sc., M.Phil., PhD Physiology
COMPILED BY:
DAMILARE THOMPSON
PROF. A. O. AYOKA

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PROF A. O.

INTRODUCTION TO NEUROPHYSIOLOGY / 2-4

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION /4-28

The CNS organization / 4-5

Protection and nourishment of the brain, CNS / 7-11

Glial cells / 7-8

The central nervous system / 13-28

The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) / 13-18

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM / 33-34

1. Altering the synthesis, axonal transportation, storage or release of a neurotransmitter.

1. Man’s stimulation during brain surgery

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

CENTRAL Brain Spinal cord

PERIPHERAL Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Skeletal muscle Smooth, cardiac muscle and glands

There are three (3) classes of neurons which are:

PROTECTION AND NOURISHMENT OF THE BRAIN

Astrocytes provide a number of critical functions;

1. Those that metastasize to the brain from other sites.

The protective device of the bony covering is self-evident.

1. The dura mater

The following are among the causes of headaches:

THE CEREBRUM (CEREBRAL CORTEX)

The 6 layers of the cerebral cortex in three

 Golgi (impregnating whole neurons)

1. Voluntary motor activities

1. The prefrontal association cortex

1. Planning for voluntary activities.

The principal parts of the

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

1. The lobes of the cerebral cortex

Anatomy of the limbic system, shown in the dark pink area

MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

1. It would be forgotten e.g. phone number from a distant relation.

Other sleep disorders include: bedwetting, sleepwalking, sleep-talking, nightmares.

1. Responses mediated at least in part by hormones.

TYPES OF RECEPTORS BASED ON ENERGY RESPONSE

TYPES OF RECEPTORS BASED ON ADAPTATION SPEED

1. Structure of a neuron, Page 6

AYOKA A.O., B.Sc., M.Sc., M.Phil., PhD Physiology

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