A.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Gender

The Difference Between Sex and Gender
Sex refers to biological differences that distinguish humans and other animals into two main categories:
male and female.”

“Gender encompasses all the social, cultural, and psychological characteristics that a culture assigns to
males and females. It categorizes which behaviors and traits are appropriate for men and women. There
are two main types of gender: masculine and feminine.”

“Biological differences between males and females include variations in the following:

chromosomal structure, XX for female and XY for male

hormone production, generally more testosterone production for males and more estrogen production
in females, which facilitate the development of secondary sex characteristics (e.g., lower voice for
males, wider hips for females)

internal and external reproductive organs (penis and testes for males, and vagina and ovaries for
females)”

Gender Roles
Culturally-assigned tasks and activities to sexes

Social constructs

Examples:

Only males can handle physically demanding activities.

Females should handle domestic tasks.

“There are two main types of gender: masculine and feminine.”

“Each gender has its own gender role, which is defined as culturally-assigned tasks and activities to the
sexes.”

Sex-Gender Systems
Gender and gender roles are associated with one’s biological sex.
However, the constructs of gender and gender roles are challenged in contemporary and
modern societies.
“In a society with a sex-gender system, males are typically expected to be masculine and
females to be feminine. However, these expectations are now challenged, especially in
contemporary and modern societies.”
Culture, Society, and Gender
“The cultural construction of gender entails that different societies, having different cultures, will have
varying definitions of masculinity and femininity. The concept of gender as a cultural construction tells
us that gender is a product of how societies and their culture adapt to the conditions of their natural and
social environment.”

Give the following examples:

“Let us consider a hunting and gathering society as an example. In such societies, gender differentiation
is evident in their division of labor, as gender roles are determined through sex differences. Since male
members are physically stronger than females, they are largely in charge of hunting wild animals for
food. On the other hand, females manage the home due to their natural ability to nurture children
(through breastfeeding). They also gather plant resources to serve different functions (e.g., food and
shelter) for the survival of their family and tribes.

Another example is the agricultural societies in Cordillera. The Ifugao communities living in Banaue still
assign planting activities to their female members because they believe a woman’s touch is nurturing.
Male Ifugao members are mainly associated with rituals that deal with slaughtering animals such as pigs
and chickens. In these examples, it can be seen how a group’s adaptive strategy shapes gender roles in
society. Besides adaptive strategies and environment, other researchers also suggest that factors such
as economy and type of political systems contribute to determining gender and gender roles in society.”

Gender is more malleable and changing across societies.

“Unlike sex, which is relatively absolute and universal because of biological structures (e.g.,
chromosomes, hormones, genitalia), gender is more malleable and changing across societies.”
Give the following example:
“For example, in the Philippines, manual work in construction sites is considered “man’s work,”
but in other countries like Thailand, women perform manual labor.”
As culture dictates appropriate characteristics for each gender, society propagates these
definitions and characteristics.
“Through socialization among different social groups, members of society can learn and shape
their conceptions and expectations of what is feminine and what is masculine.”
Give an example:
“The learning starts with families who encourage behaviors and characteristics that are suitable
for each sex (male or female) and discourage those that are not. Peer, church, school, and
media further strengthen this learning.”
LGBT and Feminist Movements and Gender Equality
“Do you know what LGBTQIA+ stands for?”
“How do the LGBTQIA+ and feminist movements challenge common conceptions of gender?”

Discuss the following:

“In a heteronormative society that propagates the worldview that heterosexuality is the norm,
males are expected to act ‘manly’ and females ‘womanly.’ However, these conceptions of
gender are constantly being challenged as the LGBTQIA+ and feminist movements struggle to
normalize gender equality, not only for men and women but also lesbians, gays, bisexuals,
transgender people, and other categories.
PERSPECTIVE-AT-WORK
What Is Gender Equality?
“According to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), gender
equality is equal rights and opportunities for girls and boys that help all children fulfill their
potential. Therefore, gender inequality is the absence of gender equality, and it has many faces
still reflected in our society.
UNICEF shares that ‘nearly one in four girls between the ages of 15 and 19 are neither
employed nor in education or training—compared to one in ten boys.’ Gender inequality
appears in various forms, from child marriage and female genital mutilation to female
infanticide, which persist despite recognition as a human rights violation. Harmful gender
norms like restrictions toward property inheritance for women, child labor, gang violence, and
recruitment into armed groups for men are affecting the population in different parts of the
world.
Despite the persistence of age-old problems and issues concerning gender, UNICEF continues
the work towards awareness and gender equality. They work tirelessly to address gender-
specific discrimination and disadvantages. They team up with different sectors to provide equal
opportunities for men and women to achieve their fullest potential.”

B.Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Socioeconomic Class

Defining Socioeconomic Class
Socioeconomic class refers to a category that groups people into similar economic, social,
cultural, and political status.
“Economic status refers to the ranking of people based on their income classification. A family
with lower income puts one in a lower economic status while those who have higher income
advances people to a higher status.”
“Different occupations and educational attainment have an attached value that influences an
individual’s position in a socioeconomic class. Doctors, lawyers, and other white-collar
occupations are considered more prestigious than blue-collar jobs. Blue-collar workers like
construction workers and janitors are sometimes socially stigmatized.”
“In terms of education, those who attain undergraduate or higher academic degrees are
admired in society. The lack or absence of formal education invites disapproval from societal
members.”
The Caste System

Classifying members of society into socioeconomic classes exist across cultures. For example,
the caste system of India determines an individual's social class and status in their society.
Citizens from higher classes receive more job opportunities in the government than lower caste
members.”
Socioeconomic Class in Contemporary Filipino Society According to Zaide (2005)

Percentage Occupation
Socioeconomic
 Class

wealthy industrialists with big corporations and owners of

Upper 10%
large plantation or haciendas

professionals, skilled and semi-skilled workers in offices,

Middle 20%
factories, or farms

Lower 70% laborers and unskilled workers

There are various ways by which contemporary Philippine society is divided based on
socioeconomic class. The classification shown in the slide was proposed by Zaide in 2005. Other
scholars have different ways of analyzing Philippine society.
It should be noted, however, that as political, social, and cultural changes occur, conceptions of
socioeconomic classes may change as well.”
Elaborate on this principle by explaining the socioeconomic classes during the Spanish colonial
period.
“Each socioeconomic class enjoys different economic, social, and political rights. Contemporary
Philippine society is often divided into the lower, middle, and upper classes.”
Karl Marx proposed a socioeconomic class system that delineates the bourgeois and the
proletariat.”
Bourgeois
owner of the means of production or the monetary, land, and technological capital
do not have to work yet they accumulate wealth
Proletariat
do not own the means of production
must work and sell their labor power in order to survive
“The bourgeois is the class that owns the “means of production” (e.g., monetary, land,
technological capital) needed to initiate the production of wealth. They do not have to work
since they gain money from owning and investing their capital. The proletariat includes
anybody who is not an owner of the means of production. They must work to survive. In this
system of socioeconomic class, the difference between the classes’ economic and social status
is clearly evident.”

Types of Capital
Economic Capital Social Capital Cultural Capital
“Economic capital refers to financial resources that an individual possesses. Examples include
money, assets, properties, and savings.”
“Social capital is the collection or network of an individual’s social relations with people that
may be of help in the future. Examples include relationships with peers, friends, family,
teachers, fellow alums, colleagues, employers, and community members.”
“Cultural capital is the combination of knowledge, behaviors, and skills that an individual has
acquired to demonstrate one’s cultural competence and, in turn, determine one’s social status
in society. Examples include material capital (sources of knowledge like books and computers)
and nonmaterial capital (academic degrees, job titles, religious titles, and other social roles).”

C. Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Ethnicity and Religion

An ethnic group refers to a specific group of people with similar characteristics and a distinct
cultural identity, which distinguish them from other groups in the community or society.
“The largest ethnic groups in the Philippines include Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Bicolano,
Maranao, Maguindanao, and Tausug.”
Ethnicity denotes the shared culture of these groups, which includes cultural heritage, language
or dialect, religion, traditions and rituals, norms, values, beliefs, and other practices.
Race is a socially constructed category attributed to people with the same biological traits or
attributes.
Differentiating Ethnicity and Race
Ethnicity
constructed based on cultural traits
diverse
Race
constructed based on biological characteristics
more unitary or singular
Both ethnicity and race are socially constructed.
Ethnolinguistic groups are ethnic groups with their own language.
“The Philippines is undeniably a diverse country as it is a home to more than a hundred ethnic
or ethnolinguistic groups (i.e., ethnic groups with their own language). These groups possess
different combinations of cultural characteristics, traditions, and practices.”
1. Give these examples:
“In Cordillera alone, there are several ethnic groups, such as the Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao,
Ikalahan, Isneg, Itneg, Kalinga, and Kankanaey. The majority of them have agriculture as their
main source of living. Their geographical location in the mountains possesses fertile lands
appropriate for planting. Several more ethnic groups are located in Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao.”

Religion in Ethnicity
Religion is a system of beliefs, worldviews, and practices related to humanity and spirituality.
“Religion, as part of one’s culture, can also be considered as one aspect of an individual’s
ethnicity.”
“Ethnic groups may have different symbols which they consider sacred. The differences
between these symbols also entail differences in how these symbols are expressed in a cultural
group’s belief system and rituals. These belief systems influence how people would interpret
and interact with the world in which they live.”
Give these examples:
“Among the religions of today are Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism.”
Animism is the belief that spiritual forces reside in natural elements of the physical world (e.g.,
trees, oceans, wind).
“One of the earliest recorded religions in society is animism among hunting and gathering
societies.”
“The physical world elements were considered sacred, which invoked veneration and respect
for nature.”
“The concept of “God” and “gods” eventually developed in horticultural and agricultural
societies.”
“In the contemporary world, innumerable religions are already established across the world,
having different sets of beliefs, rituals, gods, and sacred symbols.”
“As much as ethnicity propagates the idea of being the same as people with whom you share
cultural traits, it also strengthens differences among ethnic and cultural groups.”
“Prejudices are negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgment towards categories of people and their
individual members. Prejudices are based on preconceived assumptions and not on reason or
evidence.”
“Stereotypes are faulty generalizations and oversimplified assumptions about an entire group
of people that are based on little or no evidence.”
“Minority groups are collective groups of people singled out, distinguished, and treated as
subordinates or inferior by the dominant or majority group because of their physical or cultural
characteristics.”
“One example is the overgeneralization that Muslims from Mindanao are terrorists. Such
stereotype is created because terrorism and armed rebellion are associated with people living
in Mindanao who primarily practice Islam. These false judgments may instigate more intense
conflict among ethnic groups.”

Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality

Disability is a term that refers to the interaction of an individual's health condition with
environmental factors that cause difficulties or hindrances in performing activities and
interacting with others.
Disability is now viewed as not solely caused by a person’s health conditions. Disability happens
when the environment and society generally do not ensure the rights and access of people with
specific mental, psychosocial, sensory, and physical conditions. If a person’s environment is
inclusive and enabling, their specific conditions do not cause disability.”
Exceptionality is a concept that describes how an individual’s specific abilities and functioning
—physical, intellectual, or behavioral— are different from the established average or typical
qualities.
“The term exceptionality is more encompassing than disability.”
“Exceptionality describes how some individuals’ abilities deviate, positively or negatively, from
the usual standards set by society.”
“People who are described as exceptional may deviate from the norm.”
“Children with superior intellectual ability can be classified as a person with exceptionalities.
Similarly, children with disabilities (physical, mental, behavioral, or emotional) are also
considered as such.“

Give more examples:

having extraordinary abilities (also called gifts or talents), such as in the realm of academics,
arts, and music
recognized disabilities such as learning disabilities (e.g., dyslexia, dyscalculia)
The concept of non-exceptionality is only used to differentiate between those with
exceptionalities and those without exceptionalities.
“The concepts of exceptionality and non-exceptionality are social and cultural constructs.
Society sets the standards and definitions of who is exceptional and who is not.”
Labels and Status of the Exceptional
Societal members use labels to describe the different types of exceptionalities
“The terms like gifted, talented, deaf, blind, and dyslexic are some of the labels used by people
to refer to individuals with exceptionalities. Over the past years, the appropriate use of
descriptors has become a subject of debate.”
Using labels may have the following repercussions
 “Stereotypes or oversimplified assumptions may be formed to describe a group of
people having the same label.”
 “Stigmatization is the negative or unfair beliefs that society holds about a particular
characteristic, practice, or person. Stigmatization includes publicly labeling such
categories as ‘unacceptable’ or disgraceful when it does not have to be.”
 labeling a person or a practice as ‘unacceptable’ when it does not have to be.”
 “Discrimination is the negative treatment of a person by another as a result of stigmas
and stereotypes.”
1. Give the following examples:
 Stereotype – All children with autism may be stereotyped as mentally challenged. Still,
there are other cases of autism wherein some children have a specific ability in which
they excel (e.g., superior memory or skills in art or music).
 Stigma – A child labeled as ‘mentally retarded’ may be viewed negatively by societal
members, affecting his status in society.
 Discrimination – When an individual with autism decides to work in restaurants or
coffee shops as a waiter or barista, do you think all restaurant or coffee shop owners will
react positively to him? Other employers may immediately disregard him, especially if
these employers have negative beliefs toward people with autism. As a result, the
individual with a disability may not even have that much chance from the start.
Society must ensure that people with exceptionalities will receive benefits from
individualized assistance, support, and accommodations in schools and community
settings.
“Labels still have significance since they establish who needs further care and attention
from society.”
“Society must ensure that people with exceptionalities will receive benefits from
individualized assistance, support, and accommodations in schools and community
settings in order to advance their development.”
“Laws and legislations that support their acceptance and inclusion in society are
essential. The establishment of organizations that cater to the needs of people with
exceptionalities must also be a priority.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Nationality

Nationality is a person’s belonging or membership to a specific nation or nation-state.
“Nationality is a term that has been defined and redefined by different perspectives that
it now becomes difficult to look for its definition.”
“This definition of nationality places high value to one’s membership and allegiance to a
particular country for the determination of one’s nationality.”
“Nationality does not equate to ethnicity. It is possible that nationals of a specific
nation-state belong to different ethnic groups. In some cases, ethnic groups are denied
of membership to a nation-state.

Acquisition of One’s Nationality

Obtaining one’s nationality is dependent on the recognized and enacted nationality law
in a particular state.
“Nationality can be acquired in different ways.”
“Since there is no universal law about such, it now becomes a prerogative or right of the
state to determine who are or can be their nationals.”
Difference between Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli
“The principle of jus sanguinis (translated as “right of blood”) determines the nationality
and citizenship by the parent’s nationality.”
“In jus soli (translated as “right of soil”), one’s nationality is determined by the territory
or land in which the he or she is born or is according to birthplace.”
Give the following examples:
“The Philippines implements this nationality law in determining its citizens. A child of
two Filipino parents is born in the Philippines. The child will also be Filipino. In the same
way, an American national giving birth to a child in the Philippine lands passes its
nationality to the child by virtue of jus sanguinis.”
“The United States of America employs nationality law, which means that everybody
born in the USA, regardless of their parent’s nationalities, will be claimed by the
American government as American nationals.”
Naturalization is the legal process of acquiring citizenship and nationality from a
different state.
“Another way of obtaining nationality is through naturalization.”
“Both the Philippines and the United States use naturalization to change the
nationalities of foreigners from their country.”
Political Jurisdiction of Nation-States over Nationals
Pursue and investigate nationals who may or may not be associated to any criminal
action
Protect all of its nationals
“Nationality also establishes the legal relationship between an individual and the state.
When a person is regarded as a legal member of one nation-state, he becomes
mandated to be under the nation-state’s laws and regulations.”
“These rights and responsibilities are binding regardless of the state in which a state
member currently resides. This means that a person who is a member of a particular
state is still mandated to follow its rules even if he is currently not residing in his own
country’s territory. In the same manner, the state’s responsibility to protect its citizens
transcends national borders to include state members currently living in different
countries.”
Dual Nationality or Multiple Citizenship is the claim of a person to belong in two (or
more) nations.
“This nature of nationality allows the two involved states to claim the nationality or
citizenship of the person separately.”
“They are also capable of imposing political jurisprudence to the individual with multiple
nationalities.”
The concept of nationality is most important in the international platform, because it
somehow regulates nationals, regardless of their current locations across the world.
Embassies/
Consulates
Political Asylum
“Since many Filipinos work and live in different parts of the world, labeling them as
Filipino nationals will make it easier for the Philippine government to determine who
should be protected. Agencies like the Philippine embassies and consulates are
established to help fulfill this responsibility of the state toward its members.”
“The concept of political asylum allows a person to assume the host nation’s nationality
to afford the same protection given to original nationals. Political asylum is usually
granted to people persecuted by their states because of their ethnicity, nationality,
religion, race, and other factors.”