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ENGINE OPERATING CYCLES

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Chapter Outline

1 Introduction and Basic Considerations

2 Air Standard Assumptions

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3 Reciprocating Engines
4 The Otto Cycle
5 The Diesel Cycle
6 The Dual Cycle

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 4.1

CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC

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Introduction and basic considerations
• Devices or systems used to produce a net
power output → engines

• Actual cycle vs Ideal cycle

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— Actual cycles are difficult to analyze
— Friction, insufficient time for equilibrium
conditions, i.e. irreversibility

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 4.2
AIR – STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

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 Air-Standard Assumptions
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed
loop and always behaves as an
ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.

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3. The combustion process is replaced
by a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by
The combustion process is replaced by a a heat-rejection process that
heat-addition process in ideal cycles. restores the working fluid to its
initial state.

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Air-standard Assumptions

Cold-air-standard assumptions:
When the working fluid is considered to be air with
constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).

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Air-standard cycle:
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.

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 4.3
RECIPROCATING ENGINES

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Reciprocating Engines - Nomenclature

TDC: top dead center

BDC: bottom dead center

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Bore: diameter of piston
Stroke: distance between TDC
and BDC

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 𝑟=
Compression ratio, r

=
Reciprocating Engines

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝐶

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Mean effective pressure, MEP

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
MEP =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
✓MEP used as a parameter to compare
the performances of reciprocating

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engines of equal size; larger value of
MEP delivers more net work per cycle
and thus performs better

✓A fictitious pressure that, if it acted on

the piston during the entire power
stroke, would produce the same
amount of net work as that produced
during the actual cycle

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 4.4
THE OTTO CYCLE

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Otto Cycle

Spark Ignition Engine

• The ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines
(gasoline engine)

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• Named after Nikolaus A. Otto who built a successful four-
stroke engine in 1876 in Germany

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 Otto Cycle

Actual cycles in 4-stroke spark-ignition engines

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 Otto Cycle

Ideal cycles in 4-stroke spark-ignition engines

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 Actual 2-stroke spark-ignition engines

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Actual 2-stroke spark-ignition engines (upstroke)
• One-way valve opens and fuel mixture is drawn into
crankcase
• Transfer port is covered

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• Fuel mixture is compressed (again) and ignited
• Piston covers exhaust port during compression

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Actual 2-stroke spark-ignition engines (downstroke)
• Combustion forces piston down compressing fuel
mixture in crankcase
• Intake port is covered and valve is forced closed

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• Transfer port is uncovered forcing fuel mixture into
cylinder
• This fuel mixture pushes the exhaust out the exhaust
port

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Otto Cycle

P-v Diagram

1-2: Isentropic compression

2-3: Constant-volume heat

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addition
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Constant-volume heat
rejection

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Otto Cycle

T-s Diagram

1-2: Isentropic compression

2-3: Constant-volume heat

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addition
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Constant-volume heat
rejection

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Otto Cycle

First law analysis on Otto Cycle (closed cycle):

Energy balance:
kJ

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𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑢
kg

Also:

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 and
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

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Otto Cycle
First law analysis on Otto Cycle (closed cycle):

Thermal efficiency (cold air-standard assumptions)

𝑇4
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇 − 1

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1
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = =1− =1− =1−
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇
𝑇2 3 − 1
𝑇2

Since Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 and

𝑣4 = 𝑣1 , the isentropic equations of ideal gases and the constant
pressure/volume relations can be used to yield
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑇4
= = =
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝑣4 𝑇3
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 Recall??
Otto Cycle

Recall??
24

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Otto Cycle
𝑇4 𝑇3
Then = And inserting into 𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 equation
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 =1−
𝑇2

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𝒗𝟐 𝒌−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜼𝒕𝒉,𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐 = 𝟏 − =𝟏− 𝒌−𝟏 =𝟏−
𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒓𝒌−𝟏
𝒗𝟐

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉1 𝑐𝑝
where 𝑟 = = and 𝑘 = Specific Heat Ratio
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉2 𝑐𝑣

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 Otto Cycle

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Otto Cycle – Example 1

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of

the compression process, air is at 95 kPa and 27C, and 750 kJ/kg of
heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat-addition
process. Using constant specific heats at room temperature,
determine

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a) the pressure and temperature at the end of the heat- addition
process,
b) the net work output
c) the thermal efficiency, and
d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.

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 Otto Cycle – Solution 1

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 Otto Cycle (Solution 1)

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 Otto Cycle (Solution 1)

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 Otto Cycle (Solution 1)

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 4.5
THE DIESEL CYCLE

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 Diesel Cycle
Compression Ignition Engine

• The ideal cycle for CI

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reciprocating engines
• CI engine: first proposed by
Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s

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Diesel Cycle
P-v Diagram

1-2 isentropic compression

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2-3 constant-pressure heat
addition
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 constant-volume heat
rejection.

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Diesel Cycle
T-s Diagram

1-2 isentropic compression

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2-3 constant-pressure heat
addition
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 constant-volume heat
rejection.

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Diesel Cycle
First law analysis of Diesel cycle (closed system)

𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

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−𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢4
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑇4 − 𝑇1

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Diesel Cycle
Therefore, the thermal efficiency;
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = =1− =1−
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑇3 − 𝑇2

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𝑇1 𝑇4 − 1 Defining cutoff ratio,
1
=1− 𝑉3
𝑟𝑐 = = ;
𝑣3
𝑇
𝑘𝑇2 3 − 1 𝑉2 𝑣2
𝑇2

1 𝑟𝑐𝑘 − 1
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝑘 𝑟𝑐 − 1

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Diesel Cycle – Example 2
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a
cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression process, air
is at 95 kPa and 27 °C. Using constant specific heats at room
temperature, determine :

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(a) the temperature after the heat-addition process,
(b) the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the mean effective pressure

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 95
P, kPa

16
Diesel Cycle – Solution 2

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 Diesel Cycle – Solution 2

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 Diesel Cycle – Solution 2

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 Diesel Cycle – Solution 2

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 4.6
THE DUAL CYCLE

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Dual Cycle

• First introduced by an engineer Gustav Trinkler

• Part of the heat addition is at constant volume and
another part at constant pressure

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• Dual - integration of both the Otto and Diesel cycle

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Dual Cycle
Characteristics
• Four stroke engine
• Improved and modern form of old Diesel engine’s cycles.

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• Its one stroke is divided into 2 parts allowing it to carry out
more work.
• Have increased efficiency

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 Dual Cycle

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Dual Cycle

1 - 2 Isentropic compression
2 - 2.5 Constant volume heat
addition

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2.5 - 3 Constant pressure heat
addition
3 - 4 Isentropic expansion
4 - 1 Constant volume heat
rejection

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 Dual Cycle

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 Dual Cycle
Thermal Efficiency

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Dual Cycle
Note, the Otto cycle (rc=1) and the Diesel cycle (=1) are
special cases:

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Dual Cycle – Example 3
In a dual combustion cycle, the compression starts from 1 bar and
20 C. The compression ratio is 18 and the cut off ratio is 1.15.
The maximum cycle temperature is 1360 K. The total heat input is
1 kJ per cycle. Calculate:

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(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and
(b) the net work output per cycle

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Dual Cycle – Solution 3
Known data
𝑇1 = 20 + 273 = 293 𝐾
The hottest temp is 𝑇4 = 1360 𝐾
𝑟𝑐 = 1.15; 𝑟 = 18; 𝑘 = 1.4

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𝑇2 = 𝑇1𝑟 𝑘−1 = 293 × 180.4 = 931 𝐾

𝑉3 𝑇4 𝑇4 1360
𝑇3 = = = = 1183 𝐾
𝑉4 𝑟𝑐 1.15

𝑃3 𝑇3
𝛼= = = 1.27
𝑃2 𝑇2

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Dual Cycle – Solution 3
1 𝛼𝑟𝑐 𝑘 − 1
𝜂𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝛼 − 1 + 𝛼𝑘 𝑟𝑐 − 1

1 1.27 × 1.151.4 − 1

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𝜂𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 1 −
181.4−1 1.27 − 1 + 1.27 1.4 1.15 − 1
= 0.68 𝑜𝑟 68%

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜂𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 × 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 0.68 × 1 = 0.68 𝑘𝐽 per cycle

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