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&
Forced Aspiration
Air Fuel Induction

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Chapter Outline
5.1 Air Induction
5.2 Volumetric Efficiency of SI Engine
5.3 Intake Valves
5.4 Variable Valve Timing

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5.5 Supercharging and Turbocharging

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 5.1
AIR INDUCTION

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Air Induction
• Study of how air and fuel are delivered into the cylinders.
• Objective of intake system
• deliver proper amount of air-fuel mixture (accurately, equally)
• deliver proper time

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• Intake system consist of :
• intake manifold, a throttle, intake valves, fuel injector/ carburetor

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 5.2
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

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 Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine is a
ratio (or percentage) of what volume of fuel and air
actually enters the cylinder during induction to the actual
capacity of the cylinder under static conditions.

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𝑚𝑎
𝜂𝑣 =
𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑

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Volumetric Efficiency (VE)
Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is affected by

- Fuel
- Mixture temperature

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- Valve overlap
- Fluid friction losses
- Choked flow
- Closing intake valve
- Intake tuning
- Exhaust residual
- EGR
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VE – Fuel Volumetric Efficiency (Fuel)
• In naturally aspirated the VE always less
than 100% because fuel is added and the
fuel vapour will displace incoming air.
• VE affected by type of fuel, how it is added
and when it is added.

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• The earlier the fuel is added in the intake
system the lower the VE because more of Note: piston speed proportional
the fuel evaporates before entering the to air flow velocity

cylinder.
• Multipoint injector is better to improve VE.
• In Diesels, GDI, fuel is added directly into the cylinder so get a higher
efficiency.
• Gaseous fuels displace more incoming air than liquid fuels.

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VE – Intake Temperature
V.E. (Intake Temperature)
• All intake systems are hotter than ambient air, so the density of the
air entering the cylinder is lower than ambient air density.
• At lower speed, air remains in the intake system for longer time. So
purposely heated to enhance fuel evaporation.

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 VE – Valve Overlap
V.E. (Valve Overlap)
• Engines valves don’t open and close
instantaneously

• To ensure the valve is fully open during a

stroke for volumetric efficiency, the valves
are open for longer than 180o.

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• Exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes
after TDC and the intake valve opens before
TDC and closes after BDC.

• At TDC - period of valve overlap = both the

intake and exhaust valves are open. Real
time valve overlap is greater at low RPM.
Volumetric efficiency getting lower at lower
RPM.
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VE – FrictionVELosses
(Friction Losses)
• The air flows through a duct through an air filter, throttle and intake
valve
• Air moving through any flow passage or past a flow restriction
undergoes a pressure drop.
• The pressure at the cylinder is thus lower than atmospheric

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pressure
• Greatest problem at higher engine speeds when the air flow velocity
is high
• Solutions
• smooth walls
• avoidance sharp corners and bends
• no gasket protrusions
• multi intake valves

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 VE – Intake Tuning
• When the intake valve opens the air
suddenly rushes into the cylinder and an
expansion wave propagates back to the
intake manifold at the local speed of
sound relative to the flow velocity.

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• When the expansion wave reaches the
manifold it reflects back towards to
intake valve as a compression wave.

• The time it takes for the round trip

depends on the length of the runner and
the flow velocity.

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VE – Intake Tuning
• If the timing is appropriate the
compression wave arrives at the inlet at
the end of the intake process raising the
pressure above the nominal inlet
pressure allowing more air to be
injected.

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• Many modern engines have passive
constant-length intake runner systems.
However, some advanced modern
engine have active intake systems that
can tune the manifold by changing the
length of the intake runners to match
the air flow rate at various engine
operating conditions.
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VE – ExhaustVEResidual
(Exhaust Residual)
• When the intake valve opens the cylinder pressure is at Pe

• Part throttle (Pi < Pe): residual gas flows into the intake port. During
intake stroke the residual gas is first returned to the cylinder then
fresh gas is introduced. Residual gas reduces part load performance.

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• Supercharged (Pi > Pe): fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve

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VE – Improvement
VE Improvement
• A common approach for manufacturers is to use larger valves or multiple
valves. Larger valves increase flow but weigh more. Multi-valve engines
combine two or more smaller valves with areas greater than a single, large
valve while having less weight.

• Carefully streamlining the ports increases flow capability. This is referred to

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as Porting and is done with the aid of an air flow bench for testing.
Changing the diameter and length of intake manifold can improve VE.

• Variable valve timing, attempts to address changes in VE with changes in

speed of the engine: at higher speeds the engine needs the valves open for
a greater percentage of the cycle time to move the charge in and out of the
engine.

• Volumetric efficiencies above 100% can be reached by using forced

induction such as supercharging or turbocharging.
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 5.3
INTAKE VALVE

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Intake ValveVE Improvement
• Intake valves of most IC engines are poppet valves that are spring
loaded closed and pushed open at the proper cycle time by the
engine camshaft
• Much rarer are rotary valves or sleeve valves, found on some engines.
• Valve assembly Components include:

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− Valve seat
− Head
− Stem
− Guide
− Spring
− Camshaft
− Manifold.

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Intake ValveVEGeometry
Improvement
• The distance which a valve opens (dimension l in Figure) is called
valve lift and is generally on the order of 5 mm to 10 mm in
automotive engines.
• Generally maximum lift is considered as:

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Intake ValveVEGeometry
Improvement
• Angle of the valve surface at the interface with valve seat is
generally designed to give minimum flow restriction.
• Actual cross section of flow is less than flow passage area.
• The ratio of actual flow area to the flow passage area is called as
“valve discharge coefficient”

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where

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Minimum Valve Intake Area
VE Improvement
• Intake valve offers the greatest restriction to incoming air in most
engines. Especially at higher speeds.
• One such equation for minimum valve intake area for modern
engine is given as bellow

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and the speed of sound, ci

• Ai is the total inlet valve area for one cylinder, whether it has one,
two, or three intake valves.

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Multiple Valves for Engines
VE Improvement
• Most of modern engines are now built with more than one intake
valve per cylinder.
• Two or three smaller intake valves give more flow area and less
flow resistance than one larger valve, as was used in older
engines.
• At the same time, these two or three intake valves, along with

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usually two exhaust valves, can be better fit into a given cylinder
head size with enough clearance to maintain the required
structural strength as shown

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Multiple Valves for Engines
VE Improvement
Most early overhead Most present day Some modern high-
valve engines (1950s – automobile engines performance automobile
1980s) engines

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 5.4
VARIABLE VALVE TIMING

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Variable Valve
VVTTiming (VVT)
• VVT allows the lift, duration or timing (some or all) of the intake or
exhaust valves (or both) to be changed while the engine is in
operation.
• The profile, or position and shape of the cam lobes on the shaft, is
optimized for a certain engine revolutions per minute (RPM), and this

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tradeoff normally limits low-end torque, or high-end power.
• VVT allows the cam profile to change, which results in greater
efficiency and power, over a wider rev-range.

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 VTEC VTEC

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VTEC (Variable Valve Timing and Lift Electronic Control) is a valvetrain system
developed by Honda to improve the volumetric efficiency of a four-stroke
internal combustion engine. This system uses two camshaft profiles and
electronically selects between the profiles.

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 Mivec
Mivec

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 VTC or VVT-iVTC or VVT-i
Variable valve timing allows the relationship
between the separate inlet and exhaust
camshafts to vary the valve timing overlap. A
computer continuously vary the intake valve
timing and overlap. The valve timing and

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overlap are adjusted through a series of
simple mechanisms to ensure the optimum
conditions apply across all the working rev
range. The advantages are lower fuel
consumption, lower exhaust emissions and
higher power output. Because the system is
continuously variable, an ‘i’ for ‘intelligent’
has been added to the acronym.

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 VVTL-i or i-VTEC
VVTL-i or i-VTEC
• Toyota’s VVTL-i is the most
sophisticated VVT design yet. Its
powerful functions include:
− Continuous cam-phasing variable valve
timing

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− 2-stage variable valve lift plus valve-
opening duration
− Applied to both intake and exhaust
valves
• The system could be seen as a
combination of the existing VVT-i and
Honda’s VTEC, although the mechanism
for the variable lift is different from
Honda.

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D-4S or i-VTEC I
D-4S or i-VTEC I
Toyota's 2GR-FSE V6 uses a more advanced direct injection system,
which combines both direct and indirect injection using two fuel
injectors per cylinder, a traditional port fuel injector (low pressure) and a
direct fuel injector (high pressure). This system known as D-4S or D4
Superior first appeared in the US with the launch of the Lexus IS 350.

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Example 2

A small five-cylinder CI automobile engine operates with a 42 volt

electrical system and variable valve timing control system without a
camshaft. At operational speed of 3500 RPM the intake valve opens at
32 bTDC and closes at 57 aBDC. The exhaust valve opens at 52 bBDC
and closes at 21 aTDC. When the engine is idling at 400 RPM the intake

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valve opens at 12 bTDC and closes at 18 aBDC. The exhaust valve
opens at 21 bBDC and closes at 8 aTDC.
Calculate:
1. Valve overlap in crank angles for operational speed and for idle
speed
2. Valve overlap in real time for operational speed and for idle speed

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 Example 2 – Solutions

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 5.5

TURBOCHARGING
SUPERCHARGING AND

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 Supercharger
Supercharger
• Air compressor for forced induction of an Pint > Patm

internal combustion engine. The greater Patm

mass flow-rate provides more oxygen to

support combustion,
- more fuel to be provided

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- more work to be done per cycle,
- increasing the power output of the
engine.
• Powered mechanically by a belt, gear, shaft, or chain connected to the engine's
crankshaft.
• Superchargers can spin at speeds as high as 50,000 to 65,000 rotations per
minute (RPM).
• There are three types of superchargers: Roots, twin-screw and centrifugal. The
main difference is how they move air to the intake manifold of the engine.

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 Roots Supercharger
Supercharger Types
• The oldest design
• As the meshing lobes spin, air trapped in
the pockets between the lobes is carried
between the fill side and the discharge
side. Large quantities of air move into the

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intake manifold and "stack up" to create
positive pressure. For this reason, Roots
superchargers are really nothing more
than air blowers.
• Least efficient
- add more weight to the vehicle
- move air in discrete bursts instead of in a smooth and continuous flow.

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36

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 Twin-screw Supercharger
Supercharger Types
• Compresses the air inside the rotor housing.
• The rotors have a conical taper → the air
pockets decrease in size as air moves from
the fill side to the discharge side. As the air
pockets shrink, the air is squeezed into a

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smaller space.
• This makes twin-screw superchargers more
efficient, but they cost more because the
screw-type rotors require more precision in
the manufacturing process.

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 Centrifugal Supercharger
Supercharger Types
• The most efficient and the most common
forced induction systems.
• They are small, lightweight and attach to
the front of the engine instead of the top.

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 Turbocharger
Turbocharger
• A turbo can significantly boost an
engine's horsepower without
significantly increasing its weight
• the turbocharger uses the exhaust
flow from the engine to spin a

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turbine, which in turn spins an air
pump. The turbine in the
turbocharger spins at speeds of up to
150,000 rotations per minute (rpm)
• Having a turbine in the exhaust flow
increases the restriction in the
exhaust. During exhaust stroke, the
engine has to push against a higher
back-pressure (turbo lag).

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 Turbocharger
Turbocharger

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 Turbocharger
Turbocharger

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Supercharger vs Turbocharger
Super vs Turbo
• The key difference between a turbocharger and a supercharger is its
power supply.
- In a supercharger, a belt connects directly to the engine. It gets its power
the same way that the water pump or alternator does.
- A turbocharger gets its power from the exhaust stream.

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• In theory, a turbocharger is more efficient because it utilises the
"wasted" energy in the exhaust stream for its power source.
However, a turbocharger causes some amount of back pressure in
the exhaust system and tends to provide less boost until the engine
is running at higher RPMs.
• Superchargers are easier to install but tend to be more expensive.

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Various Configuration of Forced
Aspiration

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Engine driven compressor and supercharging
Two-stage turbocharging

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 Various Configuration of Forced
Aspiration

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Turbocharging with turbo compounding Turbocharger with inter-cooler

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Thermodynamics Analysis -
Supercharger
• Power needed to drive the supercharger

where

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Assuming heat transfer, kinetic and potential energy are negligible
(true for most compressors)

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Thermodynamics Analysis -
Supercharger
Supercharger Compressor
Isentropic Efficiency

• All compressors have

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isentropic efficiency < 100%
• Actual power needed greater
than ideal
1 – 2s Ideal isentropic compression
1 – 2A Actual compression with
increase in entropy

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Thermodynamics Analysis -
Supercharger
• Isentropic efficiency of supercharger compressor

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• If inlet temperature, pressure and designed outlet pressure are
known, T2s can be calculated from ideal gas isentropic relationship

• Mechanical efficiency between power taken from engine and that

delivered to compressor

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Thermodynamics Analysis -
Turbocharger
• Isentropic efficiency of
turbocharger compressor

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• Isentropic efficiency of turbine
driving the compressor 1 – 2s Ideal isentropic expansion
1 – 2A Actual expansion with
increase in entropy

where

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Thermodynamics Analysis -
Turbocharger
• Mechanical efficiency between the turbine and compressor

• Overall efficiency of turbocharger

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Example 3

A six-cylinder, 4.8-liter supercharged engine operating at 3500 RPM has

an overall volumetric efficiency of 158 %. The supercharger has an
isentropic efficiency of 92 % and a mechanical efficiency in its link with
the engine of 87 %. It is desired that air be delivered to the cylinders at
65 C and 180 kPa, while ambient conditions are 23 C and 98 kPa

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Calculate:

1. Amount of intercooling needed [kW]

2. Engine power lost to run supercharger [kW]

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 Example 3 – Solutions

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