UNIT 5: INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL PROTEIN

FIBERS & WOOL

 Unit 5: Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• list the characteristics common to all protein
fibres;
• describe the differences in characteristics and
performance among the common protein fibres;
• explain the processing of natural protein fibres;
• assess market needs in relation to the properties
of natural protein fibres; and
• visually identify natural protein fibres.
 NATURAL PROTEIN FIBERS
INTRODUCTION

• Natural protein fibers are

derived from the coats of
animals or from animal
secretions/discharges

• Wool, hair and fur fibers

fall in the first class, and
silk is the product of the
second

• The fibrous cover of many

mammals is composed of
an outer layer of long,
coarse fibers and an
under-coat of softer fibers

• Hair and wool fibers range

from 5 – 30 cm in length
 Chemical properties of protein fibers
• Composed of various amino acids – wool has
more types of amino acids than silk
• Contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O)
and nitrogen (N)
• Protein of wool = keratin
• Protein of silk = fibroin
• Wool contains sulfur, whereas silk does not –
wool is thus especially prone to insect damage
 • Silk is chemically similar to
animal hair and fur, but its
physical properties are
completely different

• The physical differences are a

consequence of the roles
nature intended for the
different fibers; hair and fur
protect the animal from rain
and cold; silk provides a
cocoon into which a moth
larva (the silkworms) retreats
during its change into the
adult form (the moth)

• The different functions call for

differences in surface texture,
strength, elongation and
elasticity, and thermal
properties
 WOOL

• Wool fibers are staple fibers that are obtained

from the fleece of sheep or lamb

• Specialty wool fibers (hair fibers) come from

other animals such as camels, goats, llamas,
and rabbits

• The fibers length, colour, and fineness vary

considerably, based on the animal breed

• The wool is graded based on the fineness of

the fibers, determined by the average fiber
diameter (the finest fibers, lamb’s wool is taken
from sheep about eight month’s old; hog wool is
a coarser, stronger, longer fibers produced by
older sheep. The wool of very old sheep is
usually of inferior quality)

• Being a natural fiber, wool’s quality may vary

 Process of obtaining wool from animal:
• After shearing the fleece is sorted and graded
• There are thirteen grades of wool that can be grouped as
fine, medium, coarse and carpet quality
• The long, fine fibers, or tops, which may be 15 – 20cm
long, are used for the finest worsted yarns
• The shortest fibers, 6cm or less, are used in woollens
• After sorting, wool is baled and shipped to the yarn
manufacturer. Here it is sorted again, scoured, and dried.
• To ensure a uniform product, wool from different bales (of
the same grade) are blended, then spun into yarns or used
for making felt
• In the United States, the Wool Product Labelling Act
dictates the way wool products are labelled.
 WOOL – FIBER MORPHOLOGY:
THE MACRO STRUCTURE OF WOOL

FIBER CRIMP

• Wool fibers have a natural crimp or coil

configuration

• Fine wool fibers may have as many as 10

crimps per cm, whilst coarse wool fibers have
less than 4 crimps per 10 cm. (as the
diameter of wool increases the number of
crimps per unit length decreases)

• The crimped configuration prevents the wool

fibers from aligning themselves too closely
when spun into yarn

• Both the crimp and the polymer structure

make the fibers ‘springy’ and enable the wool
fibers to return to its crimped configuration
(elastic nature) and adds to the good
resiliency of wool
 FIBER LENGTH AND DIAMETER

• The length of wool fibers ranges from ± 5

cm for the finest wool to 35 cm for the
longest coarsest wools (for wool textile
manufacture a length of 5 – 12 cm is
preferred)

• Wool vary in their fibers diameter, ranging

from 10µm for the very finest wools to
50µm for the coarsest wools

COLOUR AND LUSTRE

• The colour of the wool fibers depends on

the breed and varies from off-white to light
cream in colour. This variation is due to
the disulphide bonds (see polymer
structure), which seem to be able to act
as chromophores
 WOOL – FIBER MORPHOLOGY:
THE MICROSCOPIC
APPEARANCE OF WOOL

CROSS SECTION
• Wool fibers have a round to oval
cross section

SURFACE CONTOUR
(LONGITUDINAL VIEW)
• Under the microscope wool has
overlapping scales along the
surface of the fibers

• The type of scales vary by

animal breed (*)
The micro-structure of wool consists of three main components: the cuticle, cortex, and fibrils
 WOOL – FIBER MORPHOLOGY:
THE MICRO - STRUCTURE OF WOOL

• Wool fibers grow from a follicle in the skin of a sheep

(like human hair)

• The micro-structure of wool consists of three main

components: the cuticle, cortex, and fibrils

• The cuticle is the layer of overlapping epithelial cells

surrounding the wool fibers. It consists of the epicuticle,
exocuticle, and endocuticle

• The epicuticle is only a few molecules thick and is

composed of a water-repellent, wax-like substance
(although water-repellent, it has countless microscopic
pores which enable wool to absorb moisture, such as
perspiration)

• The overlapping epithelial cells form the exocuticle

• The endocuticle is an intermediate, cementing the

epithelial cells to the cortex of the wool fibers
• The cortex, or core, of the wool
fibers forms about 90% of the
fiber’s volume

• The cortex of wool fibers is

composed of two distinct types of
cortical cells (bicomponent fiber)
that more or less divide the wool
into two distinct halves, known as
the ortho-cortex and the para-
cortex
 • The cortical cells of the wool
fibers consist of a number of
macro-fibrils, each about 100 –
200 nm in diameter, held together
by a protein matrix

• Each macro-fibril consists of

hundreds of micro-fibrils each
about 5 nm in diameter

• Each micro-fibril consists of

eleven proto-fibrils, about 500 nm
in length and 2 nm in diameter
(the proto-fibrils spiral around
each other)

• Finally each proto-fibril consists of

three wool polymers, which also
spiral around each other
 THE POLYMER SYSTEM OF A WOOL
FIBER

• Wool is a protein – a high molecular

weight, naturally occurring organic
compound composed of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N),
and sulphur (S)

• The wool polymer is a linear, keratin

polymer, with some very short side
groups and it normally has a helical
configuration (See figure in textbook)

•
 • The repeating unit of
the wool polymer is
the amino acid
(organic compound
containing both a
carboxyl group (-
COOH) and an amino
group (NH2)

• Each amino group has

a specific side chain,
also attached to the
C.
• Amino acids are linked to each other (polymerization) by the peptide bond
(-CO-NH-) to form the wool (or silk) polymer
• Peptide group: Carbonyl (-CO) of one molecule reacts with the amino
group (NH) of the other molecule
 THE WOOL POLYMER (KERATIN)

• A wool polymer is about 140 nm long and about

1nm thick

• In its normal relaxed state, the wool polymer has

a helical configuration known as alpha-keratin (α-
keratin)

• Stretching the wool fibers will also stretch,

straighten or unfold its polymers. The extended
(unfolded) wool polymer is called beta-keratin (β-
keratin)

• A β-keratin wool polymer will always attempt to

return to its relaxed α-keratin form – as soon as
tension on the fibers is released, the molecules
return to their original shape and dimensions (the
α-keratin form)
 • The complexity of the
wool polymer is
illustrated by the
different, yet important
chemical groups it
contains and the inter-
polymer forces of
attraction these are able
to form

• Firstly there are polar

peptide groups (-CO-
Peptide group NH-). The oxygen of the
carbonyl groups (-CO-)
is slightly negatively
charged and as a result
will form hydrogen bonds
with the slightly positively
charged hydrogen of the
amino groups (-NH-) of
The highlighted dotted line another peptide group
indicates a hydrogen bond
 • The second bond:
• Wool polymers form carboxylic groups (-COO -) and amino groups (-
NH+) as side groups (depending on which amino acid is present)

• The second bond or linkage therefore formed in wool polymers is

between the carboxylic groups (-COO -) (a carboxylic acid or organic
acidic group) as a side group and amino groups (-NH+) (the basic
group) as a side group to form salt linkages or ionic bonds
• Thirdly, cystine, the sulphur-containing amino acid present in wool, makes the wool
polymer system the only one with cystine linkages, also known as disulphide bonds

• These linkages are very strong as they are covalent bonds

• They occur between (figure a) and within (figure b) wool polymers

• The final type of bond present in
wool polymer system is the Van
der Waal’s forces (only occur if
the polymers are close enough
to each other) - however, the
existence of the other three
types of inter-polymer forces of
attraction as described, tends to
make the Van der Waal’s forces
rather insignificant

• The polymer system of wool is

extremely amorphous as most of
the amino acid side chains are
large; it is about 25 – 30 %
crystalline and, correspondingly,
75 – 70 % amorphous and
because of the spiraling
polymers, proto-fibrils, micro-
fibrils and macro-fibrils the
polymer system is not well-
aligned
 WOOL – PROPERTIES

Tenacity low stretch compensates for low strength

Elongation high stretches easily due to natural crimp

Elastic Recovery high one of the highest recovery
Resiliency high exceptionally high
Specific Gravity medium lower than cellulosic fibers
Stiffness low bends easily
Absorbency hygroscopic feels comfortable in damp weather
Resistance to Dilute Acids high can be dyed in acid dye bath
Resistance to Conc. Acids medium damaged by sulphuric acid
Resistance to Dilute Alkalis low easily damaged
Resistance to Conc. Alkalis low easily damaged
Resistance to Chlorine Bleach low chlorine bleach should not be used
Resistance to Organic Solvents high solvents for cleaning can be used
Damage by Micro-organisms not damaged damaged if damp for a long period
Damage by Moth damaged food source for moths and beetles
Damage by Silverfish not damaged not a food source for silverfish
Action of Heat scorches scorches at relatively lower temperature
Resistance to Ultraviolet Light low to medium oxidation due to prolonged exposure
 AESTHETICS – APPEARANCE

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
• The colour of wool fibers, dependent
on the breed, ranges from off-white to
black. A majority of wool fibers are off-
white

• In general, wool fibers have low luster

(some wool fibers (the coarser, longer
fibers with less crimp) have relatively
higher luster

• Wool fibers range from fine crimped,

finer quality wool and specialty wools
to relatively straight coarse wools

COVERING POWER
• Wool fibers are opaque
 AESTHETICS - APPEARANCE RETENTION

WRINKLE AND CRUSH RESISTANCE

• Wool has excellent wrinkle resistance

as well as wrinkle recovery

• Many structural aspects of a wool fiber

contribute to its resilience; 1. The
helical keratin polymer, cross-linked to
other helical polymers, the spiralling
proto-fibrils, micro-fibrils and macro-
fibrils all contribute. 2. The system is
also amorphous (enough space for
polymers to move and return; the
breaking and reformation of hydrogen
bonds along adjacent wool polymers
accounts for this performance), 3. The
para- and ortho-cortex cause the
three-dimensional crimp that also plays
a role
 • The resiliency of wool
fibers is diminished as it
water content increases
(amorphous = high
absorbency)

• Wetting or steaming tend

to ‘jumble’ the wool
polymers, so they pack
less efficiently/orient
 DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
• Wool fabrics shrink considerably due to felting
• There are finishes that are applied to wool fabrics that
prevent felting shrinkage in the wash by altering the
surface structure so as to prevent the entanglement of
the fibers

• The felting tendency is a disadvantage of woollen clothing

articles that require frequent laundering (in the tailoring
industry however, this property is an advantage as it allows
for shaping lapels, sleeve caps, hems – for a professional
look)

• Felting of wool is significantly enhanced by heat and an

alkaline environment (as in laundering – detergents are
alkaline)

• Heat will make the fibers more elastic and plastic, easier and
more likely to move, and encourages the distortion of the
fibers and entanglement with other fibers. Heat will also
cause the fibers to swell more and this effect is enhanced in
alkaline conditions

• Increased swelling results in more inter-fibers contact and

increased inter-fibers friction
 SHAPE RETENTION
• Wool retains its shape very well (if
laundered in the correct method) as
the natural crimp allows for good
elastic recovery

PILLING
• Wool fabrics are subject to pilling because
they generally have fuzzy surfaces
• In general, pills formed on wool fabrics
can easily be removed; fibers that hold the
pill break readily due to their low tenacity
• More pilling occurs on fabrics composed
of finer fibers than those composed of
medium wool fibers, but in all cases the
pills are easy to remove
 COMFORT

THERMAL INSULATION
• Wool is suitable for cold conditions because
the natural crimp allows it to trap air
• The trapped air serves as an insulator; thus,
bulkier wool fabrics that trap more air have
higher insulative properties

MOISTURE PROPERTIES
• Wool is a hygroscopic fibers and it gives off
heat when it absorbs moisture - thus, wool
is suitable for cold, damp weather because
it warms the body (to a certain extent)
• Wool can absorb large quantities of water.
Water enters the amorphous areas and is
attracted to the peptide and salt linkages.
As absorption occurs, heat is released
 STRETCH AND RECOVERY
• Wool’s natural crimp allows
extension, so fabrics have high
elongation and excellent elastic
recovery; therefore, wool
garments allow ease of body
movement (*refer to discussion
under polymer structure)

SKIN IRRITANTS/ALLERGENS

• Wool, especially coarse wool,

(due to the scaly structure) may
irritate the skin and cause
itching or rash
 DURABILITY
STRENGTH
• Although wool has a relatively low
tenacity (low crystallinity and low
degree of orientation), it is fairly
durable due to the natural crimp.
Crimp allows the fibers to withstand
a fair amount stress by stretching
when pulled, thus preventing
breakage

• Wool fibers are generally not very

durable (highly amorphous). Wool
fabric, however, may be very
durable, because the length, crimp,
and scale structure of the wool fibers
increase cohesiveness within yarns
and fabrics
 • Wool is a comparatively weak fiber
(compared to natural cellulosic fibers)
• Its low tenacity is due to the low degree of
orientation and low crystallinity of the
polymers and to the relatively few hydrogen
bonds that form between the polymers (the
hydrogen bonds that hold the spiral structure
of α-keratin together do not pay a role in the
strength of the fibers. Toughness is also low
• This lack of tenacity is compensated for by
the degree of elongation and elastic recovery
in wool fibers, which is higher than for all
other fibers except nylon and spandex
• The 25-30% elongation of the wool fibers,
built in from the macroscopic, three-
dimensional crimp, to the helical polymer,
allows sudden stresses or loads to be
absorbed so that irreversible structural
damage does not occur
 ABRASION RESISTANCE
• Wool has a relatively low resistance to abrasion as the inter-
cellular cement absorbs initial stress and then gives way,
resulting in fibrillated fibers ends
• However, other characteristics may compensate for this
inherent weakness (the resistance of the fabric is dependent on
yarn and fabric construction, finishes applied)
• Abrasion resistance of wool apparel fabrics is fair to good, while
the abrasion resistance of carpet wool is high

WEATHERING
• Wool is weakened by prolonged exposure to sunlight (wool
garments that are white turn yellow with prolonged
exposure)
• Wool fabrics should not be dried in sunlight, which
accelerates yellowing and dulling when wool is wet.
Exposure of bleached wool to atmospheric oxygen,
moisture, and pollutants tends to cause the wool to revert
to its original off-white colour and eventually yellow
 CARE
CLEANING
• Wool fibers are usually dry cleaned
and not laundered
• If washed, care instructions should
be followed carefully as wool may felt
and thus shrink if washed incorrectly
• Hand washing with a neutral or mild
detergent such as Woolite®, and
minimal agitation at low temperature
is generally preferable even for
washable wools
• Chlorine bleach damages the fibers.
If needed, oxygen type bleaches can
be used with care
 IRONING
• Most wool fabrics require little or no
ironing
• If needed, wool can be steam-ironed at
the recommended temperature for ironing
wool, with a damp press cloth placed on
top of the fabric. The damp cloth prevents
the wool fabric from getting an
undesirable shine as a result of contact
between the iron and fabric

STORAGE
• Wool should be cleaned and stored carefully
• Soiled garments are more prone to damage by
moths
• Storing in cedar chests or closets, or with moth
balls, helps prevent damage. Some fabrics are
treated with moth resistant finishes
 HEALTH, SAFETY, PROTECTION

FLAMMABILITY

• Wool is one of the least flammable

of the combustible fibers

• Wool is inherently self-extinguishing

due to its high water content and
chemical composition

SOUND ABSORPTION

• The three-dimensional crimp and

felting of wool contribute to an
excellent sound-absorbing fabric
structure

• In carpeting, wool both deadens

and absorbs sound
 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ABSORPTION
• Wool fibers are extremely useful in removing toxic
chemicals from the environment, particularly
heavy metals

• Wool is also used to filter liquids and gases as the

rougher surface gives better results than
synthetic counter parts

• The amino acids in the keratin polymer are

believed to attract and hold oil –course wool (the
cheapest sort, with a larger fiber diameter) is
able to absorb ten times its own weight of heavy
fuel oil

HEALTH BENEFITS
• It has been said that people wearing wool can
withstand stress better, are less inclined to
contract respiratory diseases, have better body-
temperature control, are more confident and self-
reliant as they are more comfortable & at ease,
crave less cigarettes, suffer less from rheumatic
& arthritic conditions, and finally need less sugar
to keep them warm and comfortable and
therefore can slim more easily