STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS
Instantaneous Power
For the special case of steady state sinusoidal signals

Average Power
Power absorbed or supplied during one cycle

Maximum Average Power Transfer

When the circuit is in sinusoidal steady state

Effective or RMS Values

For the case of sinusoidal signals

Power Factor
A measure of the angle between current and voltage phasors

Complex Power
Measure of power using phasors

Power Factor Correction

How to improve power transfer to a load by “aligning” phasors

Single Phase Three-Wire Circuits

Typical distribution method for households and small loads
INSTANTANEOUS POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE

Instantane ous Assume : v (t )  4 cos( t  60),

Power Supplied Z  230
to Impedance Find : i (t ), p(t )
V 460
p( t )  v ( t ) i ( t ) I   230( A)
Z 230
i (t )  2 cos( t  30)( A)
VM  4, v  60
In steady State I M  2, i  30
v (t )  VM cos( t   v )
p(t )  4 cos 30  4 cos(2 t  90)
i (t )  I M cos( t   i )
p(t )  VM I M cos( t   v ) cos( t   i )
cos1 cos2  cos(1  2 )  cos(1  2 )
1
2
p(t )  M M cos( v   i )  cos(2 t   v   i )
V I
2
constant Twice the
frequency
AVERAGE POWER LEARNING EXAMPLE

For sinusoidal (and other periodic signals) Find the average

we compute averages over one period.  power absorbed
t 0 T VR by impedance.
1 2
P
T  p(t )dt T
 
t0

VM I M
p( t )  cos( v   i )  cos(2 t   v   i )
2
1060 1060
V I
P  M M cos( v   i ) It does not matter I   3.5315( A)
2 who leads 2  j 2 2 245
If voltage and current are in phase VM  10, I M  3.53, v  60, i  15
1
 v   i  P  VM I M Purely P  35.3 cos(45)  12.5W
2 resistive
Since the inductor does not absorb
power, one can use voltages and
If voltage and current are in quadrature currents across the resistive part.
 v   i  90  P  0
2
Purely VR  1060  7.0615(V )
inductive or
2  j2
capacitive 1
P  7.06  3.53W  12.5W
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the average power absorbed by each resistor,
the total average power absorbed and the average power
supplied by the source
Inductors and capacitors do not absorb
power in the average
Ptotal  18  28.7W
Psupplied  Pabsorbed  Psupplied  46.7W
Verification
I  I1  I 2  345  5.3671.57
If voltage and current are in phase I  8.1562.10( A)
1 1 1 VM2
 v   i  P  VM I M  RI12M  VM I M
2 2 2 R P cos( v   i )
1245 2
I1   345( A) 1
4 Psupplied  12  8.15  cos(45  62.10)
1 2
P4  12  3  18W
2
1245 1245
I2    5.3671.57( A)
2  j1 5  26.37
1
P2   2  5.36 2 (W )  28.7W
2
LEARNING EXTENSION Find average power absorbed by each resistor

I  j4 4  90
I2  I  2.6886.6
1260 4  j4 4 2  45
I
Zi I 2  1.9041.6
1
I2 P4   4  1.90 2 (W )
2

Z i  2  (4 ||  j 4)
4( j 4) 8  j8  j16 25.3  71.6
Zi  2   
4  j4 4  j4 4 2  45
Z i  4.47   26.6
1260
I  2.6886.6( A)
4.47   26.6
1 2 1
P2  RI M   2  2.68 2  7.20W
2 2
LEARNING EXTENSION Find the AVERAGE power absorbed by each PASSIVE
component and the total power supplied by the source
1
P4   4  4.12 2 (W )  33.95W
I1  I2 2
Vs Pj 2  0(W )

Power supplied by source

4  j2 Method 1. Psupplied  Pabsorbed

I1  1030
3  4  j2
Psupplied  P3  P4  90.50W
4.47 26.57
I1  1030  6.1440.62( A)
7.2815.95 Method 2: P  1 V I cos(   )
M M v i
2
1 2 1
P3  RI M   3  6.14 2 (W )  56.6W Vs  3I1  18.4240.62
2 2
I 2  1030  6.1440.62 1
P   18.42  10  cos(40.62  30)
3 3030 2
I2  1030 
3  4  j2 7.2815.95
 4.1214.05( A)
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine average power absorbed or supplied by each
element
1230  60 10.39  j 6  6
I3    6  j 4.39
j1 j
 7.43  36.19( A)
1
P60   6  7.43 cos(0  36.19)  18W
2
Passive sign convention
1230 I1  I 2  I 3  5.20  j 3  6  j 4.39
I2   630( A)
2  11.2  j1.39( A)
1 2 1  11.28  7.07
P2  RI M   2  62  36(W )
2 2 1
P1230   12  11.28  cos(30  7.07)
Pj1  0 2
 54(W )  36  18
To determine power absorbed/supplied
by sources we need the currents I1, I2

Average Power For resistors

1 1 2 1 VM2
P  VM I M cos( v   i ) P  RI M 
2 2 2 R
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine average power absorbed/supplied by each
element
V4  1
P120    19.92  12  cos(54.5  0)  69.4(W )
2
I2 1
P430    4  (9.97 ) cos(30  204 )  19.8(W )
I1 2
Check: Power supplied =power absorbed
Loop Equations Alternative Procedure
I1  120 Node Equations
430   j 2 I 2  4( I 2  120) V4 V4  430
 120   0
430  480 3.46  j 2  48 4  j2
I2  
4  j2 4.47   26.57 430  V4
I2 
44.58177 .43 2j
I2   9.97 204 ( A)
4.47   26.57 Average Power
V4  4( I1  I 2 )  4(12  9.97 204 )(V ) 1
P  VM I M cos( v   i )
 4(12  9.108  j 4.055 )(V )  19.92  54.5(V ) 2
For resistors
1 VM2 1 19.92 2
P4     49.6W
2 R 2 4 1 2 1 VM2
P  RI M 
P2 j  0(W ) 2 2 R
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine average power absorbed/supplied by each
element
V 240  V 24  14.77  j1.85
I1    4.62  j 0.925
2 2
I1  4.71  11.32( A)
I1
120  V 12  14.77  j1.85  j
I2   
I2 j2 j2 j
 1.85  j 2.77
I2   0.925  j1.385 ( A)  1.67 123 .73( A)
2
1
P2   2  4.712  22.18(W )
Node Equation 2 For resistors
V  240 V  120 V 1 14.882 1 2 1 VM2
   0  j 4 P4    27.67 (W ) P  RI M 
2 j2 4 2 4 2 2 R
1
2 j (V  24)  2(V  12)  jV  0 P120    12  1.67 cos(0  123 .73)  5.565(W )
2
( 2  3 j )V  24  j 48
1
24  j 48 2  j 3 192  j 24 P24 0    24  4.71  cos(0  11.32)  55.42(W )
V   2
2  j3 2  j3 13 Average Power Check :
 14.887.125 (V ) 1 P  22.18  27.67  5.565(W )
P  VM I M cos( v   i ) absorbed
 14.77  j1.85(V ) 2 P  55.42(W )
supplied
 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
ZTH  RTH  jX TH Z L  RL  jX L
XL
 tan(Z L ) 
RL
RL
 cos(VL   I L ) 
RL2  X L2
1 | Z L || VOC |2 RL
Z L  RL  jX L PL 
2 | Z L  ZTH |2 RL2  X L2
1
PL  VLM I LM cos(VL   I L ) Z L  ZTH  ( RL  RTH )  j ( X L  X TH )
2
1 | Z L  ZTH |2  ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2
 | VL || I L | cos(VL   I L )
2 1 | VOC |2 RL
PL 
VL 
ZL
VOC | VL | ZL 2 ( RL  RTH ) 2  ( X L  X TH ) 2
| VOC |
Z L  ZTH Z L  ZTH PL 
VL  I L  VL  Z L  0
IL  |V |
| I L | L X L   X L   X TH
Z L  V   I  Z L PL  
 0  ZRLoptL  R
| ZL | *
L L ZTH
1 RL  TH

cos 
1  tan 2  1  | VOC |2 
PLmax   
2  4 RTH 
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.

1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 

Remove the load and determine the Thevenin equivalent of remaining circuit.

8  j 4 (8  j 4)(6  j1) 52  j16

ZTH  4 || (2  j1)    
6  j1 37 37
8  j 4 8.9426.57
   1.47 16.93
6  j1 6.089.64

Z L*  1.47  16.93  1.41  j 0.43

2 320
I1 VOC  4  40   5.26  9.64
6  j1 6.089.64

1 5.26 2
PLmax    2.45(W )
2 4  1.41
We are asked for the value of the
power. We need the Thevenin voltage
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.

1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 

Circuit with dependent sources!

VOC
ZTH 
I SC

40  Vx'  (2  j 4) I1
VX'  2 I1
KVL 40  (4  j 4) I1  (4 245) I1
40
I1   0.707   45( A)
4 245
KVL VOC  2 I1  40  1  j1  4  3  j1  10  161 .5

Next: the short circuit current ...

LEARNING EXAMPLE (continued)... 1  | VOC |2 
PLmax   
2  4 RTH 
Original circuit LOOP EQUATIONS FOR SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT  Z Lopt  ZTH
*

 V x"  j 4 I  2( I  I SC )  4  0
40  2( I SC  I )  j 2 I SC  0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE
V x"  2( I SC  I )
Substitute and rearrange
(4  j 4) I  4 I SC  4
 2 I  (2  j 2) I SC  4  I  (1  j1) I SC  2
4(1  j )(1  j ) I SC  2  4 I SC  4
I SC  1  j 2( A)  5  116 .57
VOC  2 I1  40  1  j1  4  3  j1  10  161 .57
ZTH  2  45  1  j1  Z Lopt  1  j1
1 ( 10 )2
PLmax    1.25(W )
2 4
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load.
1  | VOC |2 
 Z Lopt  *
ZTH PLmax   
2  4 RTH 

4j
ZTH   j 2  (2 || j 2)   j 2  
2  j2
4 8  j8
ZTH    1  j ( )
2  j2 8
Z Lopt  1  j ()
 VOC  120  j 2 I
 12  j 2  9(1  j )
VOC  6  j18
VOC  18.974 71.57(V )
I
 | VOC |2  62  182  360
360  (2  j 2) I
1 360
36(2  j 2) PLmax    45(W )
I  9(1  j )  12.73  45 2 4
8
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1  | VOC |2 
 Z L  ZTH
opt *
PL  
max

2  4 RTH 

ZTH

j 2(2  j 2)
V j2 ZTH  j 2 || (2  j 2) 
2  j2  j2
KVL
 ZTH  2  j 2()
VOC Z Lopt  2  j 2()

1 720
Vj2 
j2
240  2490 PLmax    45(W )
j2  j2  2 2 4 2
VOC  120  2490  12  j 24(V )
| VOC |2  12 2  24 2  720
 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUES

i (t ) Instantane ous power If the current is sinusoidal the average

p( t )  i 2 ( t ) R power is known to be P  1 I 2 R
av M
2
R  I eff
2 1 2
 IM
2
For a sinusoidal signal
The effective value is the equivalent DC
value that supplies the same average power. x ( t )  X M cos( t   )
If current is periodic with period T the effective value is
t 0 T  1 t0 T 2  XM
1 X eff 
Pav 
T  p(t )dt  R T  i (t )dt 
 2
t0  t0  1
For sinusoidal case Pav  VM I M cos( v   i )
If current is DC (i (t )  I dc ) then 2
Pdc  RI dc
2 Pav  Veff I eff cos( v   i )
I eff : Pav  Pdc effective  rms (root mean square)
t 0 T t 0 T
1 1
 i i
2 2
I eff (t )dt I eff  2
( t )dt
T t0
T t0

Definition is valid for ANY periodic

signal with period T.
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform

t 0 T
T 3 1
 x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0

One period The two integrals have the

same value
 4t 0  t  1

v (t )   0 1 t  2
  4( t  2) 2  t  3

T 1 3

     
2 2 2
v ( t ) dt ( 4 t ) dt ( 4( t 2)) dt
0 0 2
3 1
16 3  32
    3 t   3
2
v ( t ) dt 2
0 0

1 32
Vrms    1.89(V )
3 3
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform and use it to
determine the average power supplied to the resistor

T  4( s ) i (t )

R R  2

t 0 T
1
 x
2
X rms (t )dt
i (t )  16; 0  t  4
2 T t0

I rms  4( A)

Pav  RI rms
2
 32(W )
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute rms value of the voltage waveform

T 4 t 0 T
1
 x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0

v  2t 12
Vrms  
40
(2t ) 2dt

2
1  8
  t 3   (V )
3 0 3
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute the rms value for the current waveforms and use
them to determine average power supplied to the resistor
t 0 T
i (t ) 1
  (t )dt
2
X rms x
T t0

R  4 R Pav  I rms
2
R

T 6
1 2 4 6
 8  32  8
2
I rms    4dt  16dt   4dt   8 P  8  4  32(W )
6 0 2 4  6

T 8

R 10

1 2 6
 P  80(W )
2
I rms   16dt  16dt   8
8 0 4 
 THE POWER FACTOR


I M  i V
Z L V  z
M v
I

v
i
V  ZI  V  Z  I
v   z  i
1
P  VM I M cos( v   i )  Vrms I rms cos( v   i ) Papparent  Vrms I rms
2
P
pf   cos( v   i )  cos z P  Vrms  I rms  pf
Papparent  90    z  0
pf z current leads
(capacitive)
0  90 pure capacitive
0  pf  1  90   z  0 leading or capacitive
1 0 resistive V
0   z  90 
0  pf  1 0   z  90 lagging or inductive
current lags
0 90 pure inductive (inductive )
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the power supplied by the power company. Determine
how it changes if the power factor is changed to 0.9.

P  Vrms  I rms  pf

 cos z  0.707   z  45

Current lags the voltage

Power company 480 (V )rms

88  103 (W )
I rms   259 .3( A) rms
480  0.707 259 .3  45( A)rms
Plosses  I rms
2
R  259 .33  0.08  5.378 kW
VSrms  0.08 I rms  VL
PS  Plosses  88,000 (W )  93.378 (kW )
 0.08  259 .3  45  480
VSrms  0.08  (183 .4  j183 .4)  480
If pf=0.9
 494 .7  j14.7  495  1.7(V )
88,000
I rms   203 .7( A)rms If pf=0.9
480  0.9
Plosses  I rms
2
R  3.32 kW I rms  203 .7  25.8

Losses can be reduced by 2kW! VS  14.47  j 7.09  480  494   0.82

Examine also the generated voltage

LEARNING EXTENSION An industrial load consumes 100 kW at 0.707 pf lagging.
The 60-Hz line voltage at the load is 480/0° V rms.

The transmission-line resistance between the power company transformer

and the load is 0.1 Ω.

Determine the power savings that could be obtained if the pf is changed

to 0.94 lagging.
0.1 Ω

100 kW  cos z  0.707   z  45

Current lags the voltage

88 103 (W ) If pf=0.94
I rms   294.67( A) rms
480 0.707 100,000
I rms   221.63( A)rms
Plosses  I rms
2
R  294.672  0.08  8.683kW 480 0.94
PS  Plosses  100,000(W )  108.3683(kW ) Plosses  I rms
2
R  4.912kW
Losses can be reduced by 3.771kW!
Definition of Complex Power COMPLEX POWER
S  Vrms I rms
*

The units of apparent

and reactive power are inductive
Volt-Ampere

| S | Vrms I ms
S  Vrms  v   I rms  i 
* | S | P  pf
capacitive
S  Vrms I rms  v   i
S  Vrms I rms cos( v   i )  j Vrms I rms sin( v   i ) Another useful form
Vrms  ZI rms  S  ( ZI rms ) I rms
*
 Z | I rms |2
P Q
Active Power  P  R | I rms |2
Reactive Power Z  R  jX  
Q  X | I rms |
2
ANALYSIS OF BASIC COMPONENTS
RESISTORS

 Q0

INDUCTORS

CAPACITORS

Supplies reactive power!!

WARNING  IF X  0
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Given :
PL  20 kW , pf  0.8 lagging,VL  220 0rms , Z L  0.09  j 0.3, f  60 Hz

Determine the voltage and power factor at the input to the line

inductive
inductive

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf

capacitive

Q 2  S L  P 2  Q  15kVA S L  20  j15(kVA)  2536.87

2

S L  VL I L* VS  248 .63  j 21.14  249 .534.86

* VS
 S   25,000 36.87 
*
 IL   L     113 .64  36.86( A) 4.86
  
 L 
V 220 0 
* IL  36.86
 20,000  j15,000 
IL     90.91  j 68.18( A)
 220 pfsource  cos(41.72)  0.746
VS  (0.09  j 0.3) I L  220 0 lagging
VS  (0.09  j 0.3)(90.91  j 68.18)  220 (V )
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the average power flow between networks
Determine which is the source
j1

VA  120 30(V )rms VB  120 0(V )rms

VA  VB 120 30  120 0
I 
Z j1
(103 .92  j 60)  120
I  60  j16.08( A)rms
j
I  62.1215( A)rms
Passive sign convention.
S A  VA ( I )*  120 30  62.12  195  7,454   165 VArms
Power received by A.
PA  7,454 cos(165 )  7,200 (W )
S B  VB ( I )*  1200  62.12  15  7,454   15VArms
PB  7,454 cos(15)  7,200 (W )
A supplies 7.2kW average power to B
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine real and reactive power losses and
real and reactive power supplied
0.1 j 0.25
inductive

40 kW
pf  0.84 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 40 capacitive
| S L |   47.62 kVA | QL | | S L |2  P 2  25,839 (VA)
pf .84
|S |
S  VI * | I L | L  216 .45( A) rms I L  216 .45  32.86( A) rms
| VL |
pf  cos( v   i )   v   i  32.86
Slosses  ( Z line I L ) I L*  Z line | I L |2
Slosses  (0.1  j 0.25)(216 .45)2  4,685  j11,713VA
Balance of power
Ssupplied  Slosses  Sload
 4.685  j11.713  40  j 25.839  44.685  j 37.552 kVA
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine line voltage and power factor at the supply end

0.12 j 0.18

60 kW
pf  0.85 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | VL |  | I L |  pf
S L  VL I L* | I L |
P
 320 .86( A) rms
| VL |  pf
 v   i  cos1 ( pf )   v   i  31.79
I L  320 .86  31.79( A) rms  272 .72  j169 .03( A) rms
VS  Zline I L  VL  (0.12  j 0.18)( 272 .72  j169 .03)  220
VS  283 .15  j 28.81(V ) rms  284 .615.81(V ) rms VS
5.81
The phasor diagram helps in visualizing
VL
the relationship between voltage and current. IL  31.79

pfsource  cos(37.6)  0.792

lagging
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 1
VL  I capacitor
jC
Without capacitor :
Low power factors increase Sold  Pold  jQold | Sold |  old
losses and are penalized by pf old  cos( old )
energy companies. Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor |
With capacitor
Typical industrial loads | VL |2 C
are inductive. Snew  S old  Scapacitor
 Pold  jQold  jQcapacitor
| Snew |  new Qold  Qcapacitor
tan  new 
pfnew  cos( new ) Pold
1
cos 
1  tan 2 
Simple approach to power factor correction
 LEARNING EXAMPLE Economic Impact of Power Factor Correction

Operating Conditions

Current Monthly Utility Bill

Correcting to pf=0.9

New demand charge

Additional energy charge due to capacitor bank is negligible.

Monthly savings are approx $1853 per month! A reasonable capacitor bank
should pay for itself in about a year.
 f  60Hz.
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Determine the capacitor required to increase the power factor
to 0.95 lagging.

Roto-molding 50 kW ,VL  220 0rms

process pf  0.8 lagging

P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 50
| Sold |   62.5kVA | Qold | | Sold |2  P 2  37.5(kVA).
pf .80
1  pf new
2
Q
cos new  0.95  tan  new   0.329  new  Qnew  0.329  P  16.43kVA
pf new P
 Qcapacitor  Qold  Qnew  37.5  16.43  21.07 kVA

Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 21.07  103

C    0.001156 ( F )  1156  F
| VL |2 C  | VL |2 (220 ) 2  (2  60)
 LEARNING EXTENSION Determine the capacitor necessary to increase the
power factor to 0.94.
PL  100 kW ,VL  480 (V )rms , pf  0.707
Rline  0.1, f  60 Hz
P  Re{S} | S | cos( v   i ) | S |  pf
P 100
| Sold |   141 .44 kVA | Qold | | Sold |2  P 2  100 .02(kVA).
pf .707
1  pfnew
2
Q
cos new  0.94  tan  new   0.363  new  Qnew  0.363  P  36.3kVA
pfnew P
 Qcapacitor  Qold  Qnew  100 .02  36.3  63.72 kVA

Qcapacitor | VL || I capacitor | Qcapacitor 63.72  103

C    0.000733 ( F )  733  F
| VL |2 C  | VL |2 (480 ) 2  (2  60)
 SINGLE-PHASE THREE-WIRE CIRCUITS
Power circuit normally General
used for residential balanced
Supply. case

Line-to-line used
to supply major An exercise in
appliances (AC, dryer). Symmetry.
Line-to-neutral for lights
and small appliances.
General case by source
Superposition.

Basic circuit

Neutral
current
is zero.

Neutral current is zero.

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine energy use over a 24-hour period and the cost
if the rate is $0.08/kWh
Assume all
resistive Lights on
 1Arms
 30 Arms

P  Vrms I rms

 0.2 Arms

Stereo on KCL
I aA  I L  I R Outline of
Energy   p( t )dt  Paverage  Time I bB   I S  I R verification

Elights  0.12 kW  8 Hr  0.12 kW  7 Hr  1.8kWh I nN  I S  I L

Erange  7.2kW  (2  1  1) Hr  28.8kWh

E stereo  0.024 kW  (5  3) Hr  0.192 kWh
Edaily  30.792 kWh Cost  $2.46 / day Esupplied   psupplied  Vrms  I rms dt
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Average effect of 60Hz current from hand to

hand and passing the heart

Required voltage depends on contact, person

and other factors

Ground conductor is not needed for

normal operation
LEARNING EXAMPLE Increased safety due to grounding

when switched on the tool case is energized

without the ground connector the

user can be exposed to the full
supply voltage!

Conducting due to wet floor

If case is grounded, then the supply is shorted and the fuse acts to open
the circuit.

More detailed numbers in a related case study.

LEARNING EXAMPLE Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI)

In normal operating mode, the two currents induce canceling magnetic fluxes.

No voltage is induced in the sensing coil.

If i1 and i2 become different (e.g., due to a fault),

then there is a voltage induced in the sensing coil.
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Wet
skin

150  400  150 

Limbs
trunk
Ground prong removed

R(dry skin) 15kOhm 1

R(wet skin) 150Ohm
R(limb) 100Ohm 120
R(trunk) 200Ohm I body   171mA
701
Suggested resistances
Can cause ventricular fibrillation
for human body
LEARNING EXAMPLE A ground fault scenario

While boy is alone in the

pool there is no ground
connection.
x
Ground Vinyl lining (insulator)
fault

Circuit formed when boy in water touches boy

holding grounded rail.

Assuming fault, pool, and railing

resistances are approx. zero.
LEARNING EXAMPLE Accidental grounding
Only return path in normal
150 mA operation

New path created by the

grounding

Using suggested values of resistance, the

secondary path causes a dangerous current
to flow through the body.
LEARNING EXAMPLE A grounding accident
After the boom touches the live line the operator jumps down and starts walking
towards the pole

7200 V

Ground is not a perfect

conductor

10m
720V/m
One step applies 720 Volts to the
operator.
LEARNING EXAMPLE A 7200V power line falls on the car and makes contact with it.

7200V
Car body is good conductor

Tires are
insulators Wet Road

Option 1. Option 2:
Driver opens door and steps down Driver stays inside the car

7200 Ibody  0
Ibody  R(dry skin) 15kOhm
Rdry skin  2 Rlimb  Rtrunk R(wet skin) 150Ohm
R(limb) 100Ohm
I  460 mA Very dangerous!
R(trunk) 200Ohm
Suggested resistances
for human body

Steady-state
Power Analysis