Quantitative analysis Numerical

• Class interval refers to the numerical width of

any class in a particular distribution.
Mathematically it is defined as the difference
between the upper-class limit and the lower
class limit. Class interval = upper-class limit -
lower class limit. ... Class intervals are very
useful in drawing histograms.
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

• The total frequency of all classes less than the

upper class boundary of a given class is called
the cumulative frequency of that class. A table
showing the cumulative frequencies is called a
cumulative frequency distribution. There are
two types of cumulative frequency
distributions.
•
• Less than cumulative frequency distribution:
• It is obtained by adding successively the
frequencies of all the previous classes including
the class against which it is written. The cumulate
is started from the lowest to the highest size.
• More than cumulative frequency distribution:
• It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of
frequencies starting from the highest to the
lowest class.
•
 NEED OF SAMPLING:
• Save Time
• Save Money
• Collect Richer Data
 Features of Good Sampling:
• Representative Character:
• Small sampling error:
• Adequate number of samples:
 Uses of probability sampling
• Reduce Sample Bias:
• Diverse Population:
• Create an Accurate Sample:
 Uses of Non-probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling is used for the
following
• Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-
probability sampling method to create an
assumption when limited to no prior information
is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for
further research.
• Exploratory research
• :
Types of sampling: sampling methods
Sampling
• You could put their names in a hat. If
you sample with replacement,
you would choose one person’s name, put
that person’s name back in the hat, and then
choose another name. The possibilities for
your two-name sample are:
• John, John
• John, Jack
• John, Qui
• Jack, Qui
• Jack Tina
• …and so on.
•
 Simple Random Sampling with
Replacement - Example
• When you sample with replacement, your two
items are independent. In other words, one does
not affect the outcome of the other. You have a 1
out of 7 (1/7) chance of choosing the first name
and a 1/7 chance of choosing the second name.
• P(John, John) = (1/7) * (1/7) = .02.
• P(John, Jack) = (1/7) * (1/7) = .02.
• P(John, Qui) = (1/7) * (1/7) = .02.
• P(Jack, Qui) = (1/7) * (1/7) = .02.
• P(Jack Tina) = (1/7) * (1/7) = .02.
Simple Random Sampling with
Replacement - Example
Sampling Without Replacement

• Sampling without Replacement is a way

to figure out probability without
replacement. In other words, you don’t
replace the first item you choose before
you choose a second. This dramatically
changes the odds of choosing sample
items. Taking the above example, you
would have the same list of names to
choose two people from. And your list of
results would similar, except you couldn’t
choose the same person twice:
• John, Jack
• John, Qui
• Jack, Qui
• Jack Tina…
 Sampling Without Replacement

• But now, your two items are dependent, or linked

to each other. When you choose the first item,
you have a 1/7 probability of picking a name. But
then, assuming you don’t replace the name, you
only have six names to pick from. That gives you a
1/6 chance of choosing a second name. The odds
become:
• P(John, Jack) = (1/7) * (1/6) = .024.
• P(John, Qui) = (1/7) * (1/6) = .024.
• P(Jack, Qui) = (1/7) * (1/6) = .024.
• P(Jack Tina) = (1/7) * (1/6) = .024…
• Simple Random Sampling with Replacement;
SRSWR
• Sampling Without Replacement ; SRSWOR
• Difference Between SRSWOR and SRSWR:
– (i) If the selected units are not being replaced back in
the population before the second draw, it is called
SRSWOR and if the selected units are being replaced
back in the population before the second draw, it is
called SRSWR
– (ii) In SRSWOR, at each draw ,new information on the
units will be generated while it may be possible to
have the same kind of information on the units in
SRSWR.
– (iii) SRSWOR method will cover the whole population
units while it is not true in the case of SRSWR
 How do you decide on the type of
sampling to use
• For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling
method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The
effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors.
Here are some steps expert researchers follow to
decide the best sampling method.
– a) Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a
combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
– b) Identify the effective sampling techniques that might
potentially achieve the research goals.
– c) Test each of these methods and examine whether they
help in achieving your goal.
– d) Select the method that works best for the research.
– E)Select your respondents
• “Sampling error is the error that arises in a
data collection process as a result of taking a
sample from a population rather than using
the whole population.
• Non-sampling error:
• “Non-sampling error is the error that arises in
a data collection process as a result of factors
other than taking a sample.
• Problems on Sampling
 Sample Mean

• The sample mean is simply the average of all

the measurements in the sample. If the
sample is random, then the sample mean can
be used to estimate the population mean.
 Sample Variance

• Another important statistic that can be calculated for a

sample is the sample variance.
• Variance measures how spread out the data in a
sample is.
• Two samples can have the same mean but be
distributed very differently. V
• variance is one way to quantify these differences. The
variance of a sample is also closely related to
the standard deviation, which is simply the square
root of the variance.
• The symbol typically used to represent standard
deviation is s, so the symbol for variance is s2.
Sample Variance
SRSOR
Variance of Sample Mean
 Elements of Sampling
• Elements - Individual members of a population whose
characteristics are to be measured
• Population - The set of individuals to which study
findings will be generalized
• Sampling - Not necessary when all units in the
population are identical or resources are unlimited
• Sampling Frame - List of the study population
• Enumeration Units - Units that contain one or more
elements and that are listed in a sampling frame
• Sampling Units - Units listed at each stage of a
multistage sampling design.
 Common types of Sampling Error
• Population Specification Error –
• this error occurs when the researcher does
not understand who they should survey. For
example, imagine a survey about breakfast
cereal consumption. Who to survey? It might
be the entire family, the mother, or the
children. The mother might make the
purchase decision, but the children influence
her choice.
• Sample Frame Error - A frame error occurs when the
wrong sub-population is used to select a sample.
• A classic frame error occurred in the 1936 presidential
election between Roosevelt and Landon.
• The sample frame was from car registrations and
telephone directories.
• In 1936, many Americans did not own cars or
telephones, and those who did were largely
Republicans. The results wrongly predicted a
Republican victory.
• Selection Error - this occurs when
respondents self-select their participation in
the study – only those that are interested
respond. Selection error can be controlled by
going extra lengths to get participation. A
typical survey process includes initiating pre-
survey
• Non-Response - Non-response errors occur
when respondents are different than those
who do not respond. This may occur because
either the potential respondent was not
contacted or they refused to respond
• Sampling Errors - These errors occur because of
variation in the number or representativeness of
the sample that responds. Sampling errors can
be controlled by
• (1) Careful sample designs,
• (2) Large samples (check out our online sample
size calculator), and
• (3) Multiple contacts to assure representative
response
 Sampling Error
• Type I Error = False Positive
• Type II Error = False Negative
 Type I Error = False Positive

Type II Error = False Negative