ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING

REVIEWER FOR FINALS

MODULE 1
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ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING
INTRODUCTION

Teachers are continually faced with the challenges of assessing the

progress of the students as well as the effectiveness of teachers. The teachers
need to find out if the learners are actually learning as a result of the teaching.
This will reveal if the teaching has been effective, which is eventually the focus of
all educators. Assessment results could actually improve student performance;
guide the teachers in developing the teaching-learning process and help policy
makers in improving the educational system. On the other hand poor assessment
procedures could negatively affect the students, teachers and administrators.
Assessment of learning is a complicated business, indeed, for it requires
measuring concepts, ideas and abstract constructs completely unlike the
assessment of physical quantities which can be done with appropriate degree of
accuracy. In assessment of learning, we deal with definite and attempt to
characterize them in a way that would be widely understood.

The assessment itself can be done in different ways:

1. Ask the learner to recall facts or principles (e.g., what is ‘x’?)

2. Ask the learner to apply given or recalled facts or principles (e.g.,
Howdoes x help you solve this problem?)
3. Ask the learner to select and apply facts and principles to solve a
givenproblem( e.g., what do you know that will help you solve this
problem
4. Ask the learner to formulate and solve his or her own problem
byselecting generating and applying facts and principles (e.g., what do
I see as the problem here and how can I reach satisfying solution?)
5. Ask the learner to perform tasks that shows mastery of the
learningoutcomes.

Moreover, the teachers need to stress the importance of participation, and

this is especially important in assessment and evaluation. Learners should be
actively involved in both the development of learning objectives and as much as
possible in their own assessment. Majority in education systems is used as a tool
for ‘sorting ‘students for selection purposes (progression to a higher level of
education, higher rewards among others).

- Assessment where students are compared with each other is known

as norm referencing. It is important if the students knows what they
need to learn and what they have to learn , so they can set their own
targets and monitor their own progress with the guidance of teachers
and trainers; this is the key role of the teacher.
- Assessment of learners in relation to a particular target or level of
performance is called criterion referencing

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CONTENT OF UNIT ONE The Definition of the basic Concepts in

Assessment of Learning
The study of any area requires an understanding of some important terms
and concepts.
As a results, Educators place great emphasis in avoiding the use of the
terms measurement, evaluation, assessment, test, etc. interchangeably without
giving clear distinction. These words represent concepts, thus, it is needed to
give full regards to their specific meaning.

Assessment
- A process of collecting and interpreting information about student
learning.
- A systematic process of gathering, interpreting and using this
information about student learning.
- It is a powerful tool for educational improvement.
- Assessment is a general term that includes different ways that the
teachers use to gather information in the classroom.

Test
- A formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil
procedure designed to assess the quality, ability, skill or knowledge of
the students by giving a set of question in uniform manner.
- A test is one of the types of assessment procedure used to gather
information about the performance of students.

Testing
- It is used to measure the level of performance or achievement of the
learners. It also refers to the administration, scoring, and interpretation
of the procedures designed to get information about the extent of the
performance

Measurement
- Is a process of quantifying or assigning number to the individual’s
intelligence, personality, attitudes, values and achievement of the
students.
- It expresses the assessment data in terms of numerical values
andanswers the question, “how much?” Measurements can therefore
be objective (as in testing) or subjective (as in perceptions). Objective
measures the quantity while subjective measures the quality.

Evaluation
- refers to the process of judging the quality of what is good and what is
desirable. It is the comparison of data to a set of standard or learning
criteria for the purpose of judging the worth or quality.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:

Classroom assessment procedures can be classified according to the
nature of assessment and format of assessment use in the classroom instruction
and methods of interpreting the results according to Ground and Linn.

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Nature of Assessment

1. Maximum Performance is used to find out the individuals

performance doing at their best. Instruments used in this
assessment are aptitude test and achievement test
2. Typical Performance used to know the possible behavior or
possible response of an individual under natural circumstances.
Instruments used in this assessment are interest test,
personality test, Inventories, observational techniques and peer
appraisal.

Format of Assessment

1. Fixed-choice Test is used to measure knowledge and skills

effectively and efficiently. Standard multiple choice test is an
example of this assessment.
2. Complex-performance Assessment is the method use to
evaluate performance of the learner in contexts and on
problems valued in their own right.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT:
The emergence of a broader perspective regarding assessment brought
distinction between different forms of assessment based on their uses.
Assessment OF learning is basically related to the concept of summative
assessment. It is an assessment mainly focuses on finding out the extent of
students’ learning primarily to give appropriate grade to represent students’
achievement. It is a formative assessment. Informs students and teachers.
Assessment FOR learning involves using assessment in the classroom
to raise pupil’s achievement. It is based on the idea that the learners will most
likely improve if they are given constant feedback on what their aim is, where
they are on the process of attaining this aim, and how they can be better attain
this aim. (Students Metacognition).

What is metacognition in your own words?

- Metacognition is the process of thinking about one's own thinking

and learning. Metacognition: intentional thinking about how you think
and learn.

What is an example of metacognition?

- Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to

approach a learning task, using appropriate skills and strategies to
solve a problem, monitoring one's own comprehension of text, self
assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment,
evaluating progress toward the completion of a task, and ...

Assessment AS learning this is based on the idea that assessment

begins as students develop realization of the goals of instruction and the

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standards for performance. Summative/Final/Official assessment. Evaluation of

students by teachers.

Involves goal-setting, monitoring progress, and reflecting on results

- Is a basis for metacognitive process of students (Metacognition is
thinking beyond thinking and being responsible for our thinking).

ROLE OF ASSESSMENT IN CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION

Teaching and Learning are mutual processes according to Swearingen
(2002) and Kellough (1999). The assessment component of the instructional
processes deals with the learning progress of the students and the teacher’s
effectiveness and imparting knowledge to the students. Assessment enhances
learning in the instructional processes if the result provides feedback to both
students and teachers. The information obtained from the assessment is used to
evaluate the teaching strategies of the teacher. It is also used to make teaching
decisions. The result of assessment is used to diagnose the learning problems of
the students
Planning assessment starts when teacher plans his/her instruction. That
is, when writing learning outcomes up to the time when the teacher assesses the
extent of achieving the learning outcomes. Teachers made decisions from the
beginning up to the end of instruction. There are four roles of assessment used in
the instructional process.

1. Beginning of instruction
Placement Assessment determines the prerequisite skills, degree of
mastery of the course objectives and the best mode of learning.
Gronlund Linn and Miller (2009) stated that placement assessment is
concerned with the entry performance and typically focuses on the
following questions:
• Does the learner possess knowledge and skills needed to begin
theplanned instruction?
• To what extent has the learner already developed the understanding
and skills that are the goals of planned objectives?
• To what extent do the student’s interest, work habits, and personality
indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than another?

2. During Instruction. In this part the main concern of the teacher is to

monitor the learning progress of the students. Teacher should assess
whether students achieved the intended learning outcomes set for a
particular lesson. If the students achieved the intended learning outcomes,
the teacher should provide a feedback to reinforce or strengthen learning.
Based on recent “researchers, it shows that providing feedback to
students is the most effective strategy to move students forward in their
learning. Garning and Ehringhaus (2007) emphasized in their paper
”Formative and Summative Assessment in the Classroom,” that
feedback provides students with an understanding of what they are doing
well, links to classroom learning, and gives specific input on how to reach
the next step in learning progression. If it is not a formative achieved, the
teacher will give a group or individual remediation. During this process we
shall consider formative assessment and diagnostic assessment.

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Formative Assessment
- used to monitor the learning progress of the students during
instruction.
- It provides immediate feedback to both student and teacher
regarding the success and failures of learning.
- It identifies the learning errors that are in need of correction.
- Provide teachers with information on how to modify instruction and
improve learning and instruction.

Diagnostic Assessment

- Administered at the beginning of instruction or during instruction.

- It aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the students
regarding the topics to be discussed.
- It determines the causes of e of the students.
- It identifies the students who have a prior knowledge about lesson.
- Determine the causes of learning problems that cannot be revealed
by formative assessment and to formulate a plan for remedial
action.

3. End of instruction

Summative Assessment

- is a type of assessment usually given at the end of course or unit.

- It determines the extent to which the instructional objectives have
been met; to certify student mastery of the intended learning
outcomes as well as use it for assigning grades; to provide for
judging appropriateness of the instructional. - Determine the
effectiveness of instruction.

METHODS OF INTERPRETING THE RESULTS

Norm-referenced Interpretation

- It is used to describe student performance according to relative

position in some known group. In this method of interpretation it is
assumed that the level of performance of students will not vary
much from one class to another class. In other words this is an
assessment wherein the students are compared with each other.

Criterion-referenced Interpretation
- Used to describe student performance according to a specified
domain of clearly defined learning tasks. This method of
interpretation is used when the teacher wants to determine how
well the students have learned specific knowledge or skills in a
certain course or subject matter.

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OTHER TYPES OF TEST (Descriptive test)

Non-standardized test versus Standardized test

1. Non-standardized test is a type of test developed by the classroom
teachers.
2. Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialist. It is
administered scored and interpreted

Objective test versus Subjective test

1. Objective is a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an
examinee the same score
2. Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by
the judgment of the evaluators.

Supply test versus Fixed-response Test

1. Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an
answer, such as an essay test item or completion or short answer test
item
2. Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to
select an answer from a given option such as multiple-choice test,
matching type of test, or true/false test

Individual Test versus Group Test

1. Individual test is a type of test administered to student on a one-on
one basis oral questioning.
2. Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individuals or
group of students.

Mastery Test versus Survey Test

1. Mastery test is type of achievement test that measures the degree of
mastery of a limited set of learning outcomes using criterion-reference
to interpret the result.
2. Survey test is a type of test that measures students’ general
achievement over a broad range of learning outcomes using
normreference to interpret the result,

Speed Test versus Power Test

1. Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual can
complete over a certain period of time.
2. Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather
than speed of response. It contain test items that are arranged
according to increasing degree of difficulty

MODES OF ASSESSMENT
Modes of assessment used by classroom teachers in assessing students’
learning progress:

Traditional Assessment a type of assessment wherein the students could

choose their answer from the given options. Multiple-choice test, standard
true/false test, matching type test, and fill-in-the-blank test are examples of this

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assessment. In traditional assessment, students are expected to recognize that

there is only one correct or best answer for the question asked.
Alternative Assessment is a type of assessment in which students create an
original response to answer a question. Students respond to a question using
their own ideas, in their own words. Examples of alternative assessment are
short-answer questions, essays, oral presentations, exhibitions, demonstrations,
performance assessment, and portfolios. Other activities included in this type are
teacher observation and student self-assessment.
Components of Alternative Assessment
a. Assessment is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate
students, ability to accomplish communication goals.
b. The teacher and students focus on communication, not on
right or wrong answers,
c. Students help the teachers to set the criteria for successful
completion of communication tasks
d. Students have opportunities to themselves and their peers.

PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT

According to Mueller, Performance assessment is an assessment in which

students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful
application of important knowledge and skills. It is a direct measure of student
performance because the tasks are designed to incorporate context, problems
and solution strategies that students would use in real life.

Portfolio Assessment is the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work

created in response to specific, known instructional objectives and evaluated in
relation to same criteria. It is also a purposeful collection of student work that
exhibits the student’s efforts, progress and achievements in one or more areas
over a period of measures the growth and development of students.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDENT ASSESSMENT

The main purpose of classroom assessment is to improve the students’ learning.
This can be ensured if assessment is integrated with good instruction and is
guided by certain principles Gronlund (1998) provided the general guidelines for
using student assessment effectively.
1. Effective assessment requires a clear concept of all intended learning
outcomes.
2. Effective assessment requires that a variety of assessment procedures
should be used
3. Effective assessment requires that the instructional relevance of the
procedure should be considered.
4. Effective assessment requires an adequate sample of student
performance
5. Effective assessment requires that the procedures must fair to
everyone
6. Effective assessment requires specifications of criteria for judging
successful performance.

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7. Effective performance requires feedback to students emphasizing

strengths of performance and weaknesses to be corrected
8. Effective assessment must be supported by comprehensive grading
and reporting system.

MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION:

In module 1 we have discussed different terminologies such as; Assessment,

Testing, Measurement and Evaluation. We have also discussed its functions and roles in
classroom instruction. Likewise we learned about the different types of assessment used
by the teachers in learning development. In this chapter we will discuss about the
general principles of testing, the principles of high quality assessment, the clarity of the
learning target, appropriateness of assessment tool, different qualities of assessment
tools and steps in developing assessment tools.

Learning objectives:
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Define the following terms: validity, reliability, fairness,
objectivity,comprehensiveness,
• Discuss the general principles of testing.
• Familiarize with the principles of high quality assessment.
• Discuss the clarity of the learning target as well as the appropriateness of
assessment tool.
• Enumerate and expound the different qualities of assessment tools and steps
in developing assessment tools.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TESTING

Ebel and Frisbie (1999) as cited by Garcia (2008) listed five basic principles that
should guide teachers in assessing the learning progress of the students and in
developing their assessment tools. These principles are discussed below.

1. Measure all instructional objectives. When a teacher constructs test items to

measure the learning progress of the students, they should match all the learning
objectives posed during instruction. That is why the first step in constructing a test
is for the teacher to go back to the instructional objectives.
2. Cover all the learning tasks. The teacher should construct a test that contains a
wide range of sampling of items. In this case, the teacher can determine the
educational outcomes or abilities that the resulting scores are representatives of
the total performance in the areas measured.
3. Use appropriate test items. The test items constructed must appropriate to
measure learning outcomes.
4. Make test valid and reliable. The teacher must construct a test that is valid so
that it can measure what it is supposed to measure from the students. The test is
reliable when the scores of the students remain the same or consistent when the
teacher gives the same test for the second time.

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5. Use test to improve learning. The test scores should be utilized by the teacher
properly to improve learning by discussing the skills or competencies on the items
that have not seen learned or mastered by the teacher.

PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• High quality assessment is characterized by principles intended to help
teachers to promote student commitment and self-regulation in learning.
• It also provides criteria for evaluating the quality of assessment tools and
practices showing interactions between learning and strategies that motivate
learning. (C.B.Barbacena, Ed.D, N.A.Calayag)
• Assessing the performance of every student is a very critical task for
classroom teacher.
• It is very important that the classroom teacher should prepare the
assessment atool appropriately.
• Teacher made-tests are developed by a classroom teacher to assess the
learning progress of the students within the classroom.
• It has weaknesses and strengths.
• The strengths of a teacher-made test lie on its applicability and relevance in
the setting where they are utilized.
• Its weaknesses are limited time and resources for the teacher to utilize the
test and also some of the technicalities involved in the development of the
assessment tools. (Y.A Gabuyo)

Test makers believed that every assessment tool should possess good qualities.
Most literatures consider the most common technical concepts in assessment, whether
traditional or authentic, it should be carefully developed so that it ma y serve whatever
purpose it is intended for and the test results must be consistent with the type of
assessment that will be utilized. In this part, we shall discuss the different terms such as
clarity, of the learning target, appropriateness of an assessment tool, fairness, objectivity,
comprehensiveness, and ease of scoring and administering. Once these qualities of a
good test are taken into consideration in developing an assessment tool, the teacher will
have accurate information about the performance of each individual pupil or student.

CLARITY OF THE LEARNING TARGET:

When a teacher plans for his classroom instruction, the learning target should be
clearly stated and must be focused on student learning objectives rather than teacher
activity. The learning outcomes must be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and
Time-bound (SMART) as discussed in module 1. The performance task of the students
should also be clearly presented so that they can accurately demonstrate what they are
supposed to do and how the final product should be done. The teacher should also
discuss the evaluation procedures, the criteria to be used and the skills to be assessed
in the task.

SPECIFIC – Use clear direct language to tell the learner exactly what he or she should
learn and what he or she should be able to do after the training. Don’t be vague, unclear,
or misleading.
MEASURABLE - The point of setting the learning objective is to determine if the learner
can meet, perform, or satisfy it and you can only do that if the objective is something that
you can measure.
ATTAINABLE – Your learning objective must be something your learners have a chance
of completing /satisfying. They must have enough pre-existing knowledge, time and
similar resources.
REALISTIC – The objective should be something the learner sees the value in learning,
don’t teach material that’s not important or won’t be used.

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TIME BOUND – First, make sure your objective is something your learner will have to
use in a timely fashion like tomorrow or next week instead of next year. Second explain if
there are time constraints of the learner’s performance.

APPROPRIATENESS OF ASSESSMENT TOOL

The type of test should always match the instructional objectives or learning
outcomes of the subject matter posed during the delivery of the instruction. Teachers
should be skilled in choosing and developing assessment methods appropriate for
instructional decisions. The kinds of assessment tools commonly used to assess the
learning progress of the students:

1. Objective Test. It is a type of test that requires student to select the correct
response from several alternatives or to supply a word or short phrase to answer
a question or complete a statement. It includes true-false, matching type and
multiple-choice questions. The word objective refers to the scoring; It indicates
that there is only one correct answer.
2. Subjective Test. It is a type of test that permits the student to organize and
present an original answer. This type of tests has no specific answer. Hence, it is
usually scored on an opinion basis, although there will be certain facts and
understanding expected in the answer.

3. Performance Assessment is an assessment in which students are asked to

perform to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful application of
essential knowledge and skills. It can appropriately measure learning objectives
which focus on the ability of the students to demonstrate skills or knowledge in
real-life situations.
4. Portfolio Assessment. It is an assessment that is based on the systematic,
longitudinal collection of student work created in response to specific, known
instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to the same criteria. It is a
purposeful collection of student’s work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress
and achievements in one or more areas over a period of time. It measures the
growth and development of students.
5. Oral Questioning. This method is used to collect assessment data by asking
oral questions. The most commonly used of all forms of assessment in class,
assuming that the learner hears and shares the use of common language with
the teacher during instruction. The ability of the students to communicate orally is
very relevant to this type of assessment. This is also a form of formative
assessment.
6. Observation Technique. Another method of collecting assessment data is
through observation. The teacher will observe how students carry out certain
activities either observing the process or product. There are two types of
observation techniques: formal and informal observations. Formal observations
are planned in advance like when the teacher assess oral report or presentation
in class while informal observation is done spontaneously during instruction like
observing the working behavior of students while performing a laboratory
experiment in a biology class and the like. The behavior of students involved in
his performance during instruction is systematically monitored, described,
classified and analyzed.
7. Self-report. The response of the students may be used to evaluate both
performance and attitude. Assessment tools could include sentence completion,
likert scales, checklist or holistic scales

DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS.

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1. Validity - refers to the appropriateness of score-based inferences; or decisions

made based on the students’ test results. The extent to which a test measures
what it is supposed to measure.
2. Reliability – refers to the consistency of measurement; that is how consistent test
results or other assessment results from one measurement to another. We can
say that a test is reliable when it can be used to predict practically the same
scores when test administered twice to the same group of students and with a
reliability index of 0.61 above.
3. Fairness – Means the test item should not have any biases. It should not be
offensive to any examinee subgroup. A test can only be good if it fair to all the
examinees.
4. Objectivity – refers to the agreement of two or more raters or test administrators
concerning the score of a student. If the two raters who assess the same student
on the same test cannot agree on the score, the test lacks objectivity and neither
of the score from the judges is valid. Lack of objectivity reduces test validity in the
same way that the lack of reliability influence validity.
5. Scorability – means that the test should be easy to score; direction for scoring
should be clearly stated in the instruction. Provide the students an answer sheet
and the answer key for the one who will check the test.
6. Adequacy – means that the test should contain a wide range of sampling of
items to determine the educational outcomes or abilities so that the resulting
scores are representatives of the total performance in the areas measured.
7. Administrability – means that the test should be administered uniformly to all
students so that the scores obtained will not vary due to factors other than
differences of the students, proctors and even the one who will check the test or
the test scorer.
8. Practicality and Efficiency – refers to the teacher’s familiarity with the methods
used, time required for the assessment, complexity of the administration, ease of
scoring, ease of interpretation of the test results and the materials used must be
at the lowest cost.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING ASSESSMENT TOOLS:

1. Examine the instructional objectives of the topics previously discussed.

2. Make a table of specification (T OS)
3. Construct the test items
4. Assemble the test items
5. Check the assembled test items.
6. Write directions
7. Make the answer key
8. Analyze and improve the test items.

MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION:

To be valid a test must be reliable. The test to be valid it must be reliable; inversely the
test is reliable if it is valid. When teachers test a student they must be sure that the
results will not vary significantly over the course of several administrations. Without
consistency, teachers cannot say or with any confidence that they know a student can
do. An unreliable test score is useless because it states nothing meaningful or
generalizable about student performance. In this module, we will tackle about the

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concepts of reliability, validity and fairness. We will know here how the test becomes
valid and reliable.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
• Defined and explained the meaning and significance of Validity, Reliability
and Fairness.
• Enumerate the types of Validity and Reliability
• Differentiate Validity, Reliability and Fairness

VALIDITY
The quality of the representative scores that we can get out of any instrument is as
good only as the quality of the assessment instruments and methods used. Quality can
be defined in many ways but one property of an assessment method that could provide
a basis of quality is the instrument’s validity.

Validity - is defined as the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the

conclusions that can be made by the teachers from the results obtained using the
instrument. In its simplest sense validity of an instrument refers to the degree to which is
truly a measure what it is supposed to measure.

Factors that affect the Validity of a Test

Quality can be affected by the various factors. In the same manner, validity can also
be influenced. According to Gronlund (1985) cited by Asaad (2004), the following can
greatly affect the validity of a test.
1. Inappropriateness of the test items- Measuring a specific level in a domain
when in fact, the test form is not appropriate for such
2. Directions of the test items – Directions that are not clearly stated will tend to
affect the validity of the test.
3. Reading vocabulary and sentence structure – How the test is worded, the
sentence structure, and its appropriateness to the level of the student can also
validity.
4. Level of difficulty of the test item – Items which are too easy and too difficult
may not discriminate between bright and poor students.
5. Poorly constructed test items
6. Length of the test items
7. Arrangement of the test items – it is suggested that test items be arranged in
an increasing difficulty to avoid students suffering from mental blocks right from
the start of the test.
8. Pattern of the answer – There should be no systematic pattern of correct
answer that students can use in the test.

Types of validity
Validity is a general concept. To be able to establish validity requires evidences from
various types, the following are the types of internal validity of an instrument.
1. Face Validity – It refers to the outward appearance of the test which deals with
the likelihood that a question will be misunderstood.
2. Content Validity – It refers to the extent by which the test or assessment
method provides adequate coverage of the topics taught.
3. Construct Validity - It refers to the nature of the characteristic being measured.
An item possesses construct validity if it blends highly on a series of items which
measures a specific characteristic.

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4. Concurrent Validity – It refers to the degree by which scores obtained from an

instrument relate with scores obtained from a criterion, which is usually a test
with known validity.
5. Predictive Validity – It refers to the degree of accuracy of test results as to its
relationship to a performance at some subsequent time.

Establishing Validity
In establishing validity, both face and content validity can be done with the help of at
least three knowledgeable persons who are authorities on the particular field. The panel
will be asked to pass judgment on the face and content validity of the assessment
method for the given topic. Content validity can also be established through
mathematical method –an item analysis. On the other hand, construct, concurrent, and
predictive validity can be established through the use of statistical method. With the use
of factorial analysis, construct validity can be established. Correlation technique
producing validity coefficient can help in establishing concurrent and predictive validity.

RELIABILITY
Another important property of an assessment method is reliability. Reliability refers
to the consistency of resulting scores obtained from administering an assessment
method or a test. Thus, it is synonymous with repeatability or stability of the assessment
method or how well the test agrees with itself.

Ways to establish Reliability

Establishing reliability requires the use of correlation technique for most of the time
just as concurrent and predictive validity use the same. In this case however, the
purpose is to find out how well the test are relates with itself overtime and not with any
other test. There are at least three ways to establish reliability.

TYPES OF RELIABILITY

1. Test-retest Method (Measure of stability) – This method utilizes two sets of

test scores obtained from the same test administered twice to the same group of
students after a specified time interval. A correlation coefficient (called as
reliability coefficient in this case) is calculated to determine the relationship
between the two sets of scores. This the most common form because it
consistently produces the same results.
2. Equivalent-Forms Method (Measure of equivalence) – This method utilizes
two set of scores obtained from parallel or equivalent forms of a test
administered to the same group of students during the same time period. A
correlation coefficient in this case) is calculated to determine the relationship
between the two set of scores.
3. Internal-Consistency Method (Measure of internal-consistency). This method
of establishing reliability is based on internal consistency which involves single
administration of the instrument. There are several ways to establish internal
consistency such as the split-half method and the Kuder-Richardson method.
• In the split-half method, the test is administered once, and two sets of scores
from two equivalent halves of the test (e.g. odd items and even items) are
correlated.
• In the Kuder-Richardson method, the test given once but to get the reliability
estimate, the method does not require splitting the test I half.
4. Alternate form reliability – Consistency of results between two different forms
of the same test. This is the most often computed when a high stakes test is
being used.

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5. Inter-rater reliability- The measure of which two or more than one answer. A
response to a question can have more than one interpretation and/or; scoring is
otherwise subjective.

Sources of poor reliability

- Poorly worded questions
- Questions that are biased
- Different interpretations of the wording of a test.

FAIRNESS
In each of the assessments’ four purposes (placement, formative, diagnostic and
summative) there is one common denominator-the principle of fairness. Regardless of
what role assessment plays in the teaching-learning process, fairness should always be
present. As noted by Santos (2007), fairness can mean many things such as:
• Students should share the objectives of the teachers which means that they
should know exactly what the learning targets are and what method of
assessment will be used.
• Assessment should also be portrayed by teachers as an opportunity for the
students to learn rather than to segregate the slow or poor learners from the
bright or fast learners.
• Assessment should also be free from stereotyping. For example, teachers
should not judge the manipulative skills of students based on their sex or
gender, Assessment should be free from biases.

Two types of fairness:

Offensiveness- When the content presents negative stereotypes of certain subgroups

Unfair penalization - When a student’s test performance is distorted because of the

student’s group membership.

Disparate Impact:
- After a test is given, a subgroup performs less well than others.
- Does this mean the test is biased?
- To yourself, think about the issue. If this does happens, what could be the
reason?

Eliminating bias/fairness
Bias review panels
- A per – item review might this question be biased
- Overall review the test as a whole
Bias in the classroom
- Using fellow teachers. – especially if they are members of the subgroup
of children in your classroom and you’re not
- Dealing with parents-If you conduct the review mentioned above, you are
protecting yourself and checking for bias.

Additional information

Recommendations:
How do we make sure that there is validity in an assessment?

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Moving towards validity in testing:

- Do not rely on a single assessment - Use a variety of approaches.

MODULE 4
Introduction:

Teachers play a crucial role in improving the quality of the teaching and
learning process hence; enhancing teacher’s quality ranks foremost in the
education reforms efforts towards quality education. In module two (2) we
discussed about the accountability and fairness in administering the assessment
tools. In this module we will talk over the reforms in the system of instruction in
our own country.
In August, 2017 the department of education Secretary Leonor Magtolis
Briones signed into policy Department Order No.42, S, 2017, stipulating the
National Adoption and implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards
for Teachers (PPST)

Learning objectives:

At the end of this lesson you should be able to:

• Understand what Based-Standards Education is all about.
• Explain clearly the goal of Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers ( PPST)
• Enumerate the 7 domains articulated by (PST) in the distinctive area in
teaching profession.

Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST)

The goal of the PPST is to help teachers find out and develop better and
more effective ways of teaching on their various fields and develop learners to be
more analytical and to prepare them for a lifelong learning and improve ways to
make learners be more creative. “It is said the quality of an education system
cannot exceed the quality of our teachers” and this is something which everyone
must be recognize not only the department but the rest of the country as well.
(Sec. L.M. Briones) Learning does not stop with formal schooling. Learning is a
lifetime experience and a lifetime journey. The PPST was developed through
years of rigorous research and consultations. Over three (3) years thousands of
teachers, school heads, supervisor, teacher educators, stakeholders around the
Philippines contributed the development and validation of the Philippine
Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST).

- Articulate teachers -
- Well defined:
Domain
Strands
Indicators

Public Statement of Professional Accountability

- Reflect on their practice

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- Aspire for personal growth

- Engage in professional development

Compliments the reforms initiative on teacher’s quality such as:

- K-12 reform
- Philippine Qualifications Framework
- ASEAN integration/internationalization
- And the changing character of the 21st century skills.

Standards define what the teachers are expected:

• To know (Knowledge)
• Be able to do (Skills)
• Value in their profession (Value)

From undergraduate preparation to leadership in the teaching profession

1. Beginning teachers – Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

teaching principles and strategies
2. Proficient teachers – Independently apply teaching principles and
strategies.
3. Consistently display a high level of performance in their teaching practice,
mentor colleagues and work collegially with other staff
4. Distinguished teachers – Embody the highest standard for teaching
grounded in global best practice and lead colleagues in promoting quality
teaching and learning

From undergraduate preparation to leadership in the teaching profession, each

support teacher; to know where they are in terms of practice, what is expected of
them and how they can improve to reach the next level?

The PST articulate distinctive area of the teaching profession into 7

domains

1. Content Knowledge and Pedagogy – quality teachers knows how to teach

and how to teach it.
2. Learning environment – maintain a learning focus environment.
3. Diversity of learners – response to learners diversity
4. Curriculum and planning – plan and design effective instruction
5. Assessment and reporting (Formative assessment - use a variety of
assessment tool to inform and enhance the teaching and learning
process
• Summative assessment
• Feedback to improve learning
• Communication of learners needs
• Progress and achievement to key stakeholders

6. Community linkages and professional engagement - Establish school

community relationships and upholds professional ethics. Parent
–Teacher conference

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7. Personal Growth and Professional Development – Engage in professional

reflection and assume responsibility for personal and professional
learning.

SHIFT OF EDUCATIONAL FOCUS FROM CONTENT TO LEARNING

OUTCOMES

Introduction:
Reduced to the simplest components, the educative process happens
between the teacher and the student. Education originated from the terms
“educare” or “educere” which means to “draw out” Ironically, however, for
centuries teachers succeeded in perpetuating the belief that education is a
“pouring in” process wherein the teacher is infallible giver of knowledge and the
student was the passive recipient. It followed that the focus of instruction was
content and subject matter. We were used to regarding education basically in
terms of designating a set of subjects to take and when the course is completed
the teacher pronounce the students “ educated,” assuming that the instruction
and activities we provided will lead to the desired knowledge, skills and other
attributes that we think the course passers would possess.

The start of technology caused a change of perspective in education, nationally

and internationally. The teacher stopped to be the sole source of knowledge.
With knowledge explosion, students are surrounded with various sources of facts
and information accessible through user-friendly technology. The teacher has
become a facilitator of knowledge who assists in the organization, interpretation
and validation of acquired facts and information.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson you should be able to :
• Distinguish among institutional outcomes, program outcomes, course
outcomes and learning instructional outcome.
• Formulate learning outcomes based on given educational objectives
• Explain at least three(3) characteristics of outcomes-based education

Outcomes-Based Education: Matching Intentions with

accomplishment

The change in educational perspective is called Outcome-Based Education

(OBE) which has three characteristics:

1. It is student centered; that is, it places the students at the center of the
process by focusing on Student Learning Outcomes (SLO)
2. It is faculty driven; that is, it encourages faculty responsibility for teaching,
assessing program outcomes and motivating participation from the
students.
3. It is meaningful; that is it provides data to guide the teacher in making
valid and continuing improvement in instruction and assessment activities.

To implement outcomes-based education on the subject or course level, the

following procedure is recommended;

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1. Identification of the educational objectives of the subject course.

Educational objectives are the broad goals that the subject/course expects
to achieve, and defining in general terms the knowledge, skills and attitude
that the teacher will help the students to attain. The objectives are stated
from the point of view of the teacher such as: to develop, to provide, to
inculcate, etc.
2. Listing of learning outcomes specified for each subject/course
objective. Since subject/course objectives are broadly stated, they do not
provide detailed guide to be teachable and measurable. Learning
outcomes are stated as concrete active verbs such as: to demonstrate, to
explain, to differentiate, to illustrate, etc. A good source of learning
outcomes statements is the taxonomy of educational objectives by
Benjamin Bloom. Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives is grouped
into three (3):
• Cognitive , also called knowledge refers to mental skills such as
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and
synthesizing/creating.
• Psychomotor , also referred to as skill, includes manual or physical
skills, which proceed from mental activities and range from the
simplest to the complex such as observing, imitating, practicing,
adapting and innovating.
• Affective , also known as attitude refers to growth in feelings or
emotions from the simplest behavior to the most complex such as
receiving, responding, valuing organizing, and internalizing.
3. Drafting outcomes assessment procedure. This procedure will enable
the teacher to determine the degree to which the students are attaining
the desired learning outcomes. It identifies for every outcome the data that
will be gathered which will guide the selection of the assessment tools to
be used and at what point assessment will be done.

The Outcomes of Education

Outcomes-based education focuses classroom instruction on the skills and
competencies that students must demonstrate when they exit. There are two
(2) types of outcomes: Immediate and deferred outcomes.

Immediate outcomes are competencies/skills acquired upon completion of a

subject, a grade level, a segment of the program, or of the program itself

Examples:
• Ability to communicate in writing and speaking
• Mathematical problem-solving skill
• Skill in identifying objects by using the different senses
• Ability to produce artistic or literacy works
• Ability to do research and write the results
• Ability to present an investigative science project
• Skill in story-telling
• Promotion to a higher grade level
• Graduation from a program
• Passing a required licensure examination
• Initial job placement

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Deferred outcomes refer to the ability to apply cognitive psychomotor and

affective skills/competencies in various situations many years after completion of
a subject; grade level degree program.

Examples:
• Success in professional practice or occupation
• Promotion in a job
• Success in career planning, health and wellness
• Awards and recognition

These are deferred to as institutional outcomes

Institutional, Program, Course an Learning Outcomes

These are the attributes that a graduate of an institution is expected to

demonstrate 3 or more than 3 years after graduation.

Outcomes in Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) come in different levels:

1. Institutional
2. Program
3. Course, and
4. Learning/instructional/lesson outcomes

Institutional outcomes are statements of what the graduates of an educational

institution are supposed to be able to do beyond graduation.

Program outcomes are what graduates of particular educational programs or

degrees are able to do at the completion of the degree.

Course or subject outcomes are what students should be able to demonstrate at

the end of course or subject.

Learning or instructional outcomes are what students should be able to do after

the lesson or instruction.

Institutional outcomes are most broad. These institutional outcomes become

more specific in the level of program or degree outcomes, much more specific in
the level of course or subject outcomes and most specific in the learning or
instructional outcomes.

Program outcomes and learning outcomes are discussed more in detail in

Chapter 3.
Educational objectives mentioned above are formulated from the point of view
of the teacher. Learning outcomes are what students are supposed to
demonstrate after instruction.

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