***Earth as a System

***Understanding Earth’s systems and their changes is critical to solving environmental

problems.
A system is any defined part of the universe that we select for study. Examples of systems are a
planet, a volcano, an ocean basin, or a river (Figure 1.8). Most systems contain several
component parts that mutually adjust to function as a whole, with changes in one component
bringing about changes in other components.
***Input-Output Analysis :
Input-output analysis is an important method for analyzing change in systems. Figure 19
identifies three types of change in a pool or stock of materials, in each case, the net change
depends on the relative rates of the input and out put. Where the input into the system is equal to
the output (Figure 1.9a), a rough steady state is established and no net change occurs. The
example shown is a university in which students enter as freshmen and graduate four years later
at a constant rate. Thus, the pool of university students remains a constant size. At the global
scale, our planet is a roughly steady-state system with respect to energy Incoming solar radiation
is roughly balanced by outgoing radiation from Earth.
***Hazardous Earth Processes :
There have always been Earth processes that are hazardous to people. These natural hazards must
be recognized and avoided when possible, and their threat to human life and property must be
minimized.
We humans, like all animals, have to contend with natural processes such as storms, floods,
earthquakes, Loud slides, and volcanic eruptions that periodically damage property and kill us
During the past 20 years, natural hazards on Earth have killed several million people. The annual
loss was about 150,000 people, and annual financial dam- ages were about $20 billion.
***Natural Hazards That Produce Disasters Are Becoming Superdisasters Called Catastrophes :
Early in human history, our struggle with natural Earth processes was mostly a day-to-day
experience Out nun hers were neither great nor concentrated, so losses from hazardous Earth
processes were not significant.
***The Gaia Hypothesis :
Earth Analogous to an Organism. In 1785, at a meeting of the prestigious Royal Society of
Edinburgh, James Hutton the father of geology, said he believed that planet Earth is a
superorganism He compared the circulation of Earth’s water, with its contained sediments and
nutrients, to the circulation of blood in an animal In Hutton's metaphor, the oceans are the heart
of Earth's global system, and the forests are the lungs. Two hundred years later, British scientist
and professor James Love- lock introduced the Gaia hypothesis, reviving the idea of a living
Earth The hypothesis is named for Gaia, the Greek goddess Mother Earth.
***The Gaia hypothesis Is best stated as a series of hypotheses :
(i)Life significantly affects the planetary environment. Very few scientists would disagree with
this concept.
(ii)Life affects the environment for the betterment of life. This hypothesis is supported by some
studies showing that life on Earth plays an important role in regulating planetary climate so that
it is neither too hot nor too cold for life to survive For example, it is believed that single cell
plants floating near the surface of the ocean partially control the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere and, thereby, the global climate.
(iii)Life deliberately or consciously controls the global environment. There are very few
scientists who accept this third hypothesis. Interactions and the linking of processes that operate
in the atmosphere, on the sur face of Earth, and in the oceans are probably sufficient to explain
most of the mechanisms by which life affects the environment In contrast, humans are beginning
to make decisions concerning the global environment, so the idea that humans can consciously
influence the future of Earth is not an extreme view Some people have interpreted this idea as
support for the broader Gaia hypothesis.