CP and I Assigenment

SHRI VAISHNAV VIDYAPEETH VISHWAVIDYALAYA, INDORE
SHRI VAISHNAV INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
Department of Computer Science Engineering

(Session - Oct 2020)
PRACTICLEFILE
SUBJECTNAME:-Computer Peripheral & Interface
SUBJECT CODE :- BTCS204
SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-
Pallavi kala. Ritik sahu
SHRI VAISHNAV VIDHYAPEETH VISHWAVIDYALAYA
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BTCS-204 COMPUTER PERIPHERALS & INTERFACES
Shri Vaishnav Institute of Information Technology

Department: Computer Science & Engineering Class:
B.Tech. Section: A
Name:Ritik Sahu Enrollment No:……………………
Subject Code: BTCS204 Subject Name: Computer Peripheral and Interface
INDEX
Sr.No. Date of Experiment Name Page No Teacher’s Remark
Experiment
01 20/10/2020 Motherboard and its components
02 28/10/2020 Microprocessor
03 19/11/2020 Cable and connector’s
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What is a Motherboard And Write Its

Component
What is a Motherboard?
A motherboard is basically a printed circuit board (PCB) used to connect different parts of a
computer like the central processing unit, memory, hard drive, printer, mouse, keyboard, graphics
card, and other peripherals through physical slots and interface connectors. If you’ve ever opened
up your machine, you might’ve observed different lines going in various directions. These lines
constitute a circuit used to allow communication between different hardware devices attached to
the motherboard – electrical signals carrying data or information pass through these lines. The
flow of current in the printed circuit board is similar to a normal circuit, though, less in voltage.
The advantage is that it can be accommodated in less space than the conventional one.
History of Motherboard
The development of motherboards has been parallelly propelled with the advent of
microprocessors–your regular CPU chip like Intel Core i5–in computer machines. Before the
microprocessors, the computers housed multiple PCBs that were connected to each other through
a backplane. A backplane is a parallel arrangement of electrical connectors, each of them aligned
with the other such that every pin from a connector gets linked with the relative pin of the other.
This backplane was used to connect multiple PCBs together. Components like the central
processing unit (CPU), memory, and other peripherals were connected to different PCBs and then
combined using the backplane.
Over time, with microprocessors coming into existence, these backplanes became a thing of the
past, and various components were integrated directly into a single Printed Circuit Board. Thus, a
single PCB, termed as Motherboard, was only required for a computer.
In the 1980s, companies like Apple and IBM released the documentation and blueprints of their
motherboards. This was intended to allow the production of replacement motherboards for their
popular computers like the Apple II and the IBM PC. The motherboards began to become more
consolidated but complex at the same time. Super I/O (single ICs) chips started to exist in the
motherboard in the late 80s, allowing support for low-speed peripherals like mouse, keyboard,
floppy drive, etc.
As the clock started approaching the millennium year, the need for expansion slots was
eliminated for the components like video, storage, audio, and network adapters by embedding
them into the motherboard. Currently, the motherboards have taken a leap to a stage where almost
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negligible changes can be made after a motherboard is manufactured. The size of the motherboard
has reduced drastically over the last few decades and may continue to shrink down further.
How big is a Motherboard?
Depending on the form factor, motherboards can have different shapes and sizes. Generally, all
types of motherboards are designed according to predefined specifications creating a similarity
between the motherboards manufactured by different companies. However, the size may differ to
a small extent, from brand to brand.
ATX, developed by Intel, is the most widely used configuration specification for desktop
motherboards, which is implemented by almost all the major manufacturers.
MiniPC is a form factor specification given for small-sized computers like the Apple Mac Mini
and Intel NUC. These machines are used for basic computing needs like web surfing, word
processing, video playback, etc. However, advancement in technology has made these machines
more than an internet surfing device.
COMPONENTS OF MOTHERBOARD
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1.MOUSE AND KEYBOARD :-
Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board port connected directly to the motherboard.
The oldest, but still quite common type, is a special DIN, and most PCs until recently retained this style connector. The
AT-style keyboard connector is quickly disappearing, being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard
connector.
You can use an AT-style keyboard with a PS/2-style socket (or the other way around) by using a converter. Although
the AT connector is unique in PCs, the PS/2-style mini-DIN is also used in more modern PCs for the mouse.
Fortunately , most PCs that use the mini-DIN for both the keyboard and mouse clearly mark each mini-DIN socket as to
its correct use. Some keyboards have a USB connection, but these are fairly rare compared to the PS/2 connection
keyboards.
2. USB (Universal serial bus) :-
USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find USB versions of many
different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even printers. a USB
connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable.
USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular on PCs. First, USB
devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting your system.
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3. Parallel Port :-
Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port carry data on
more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel
ports use a 25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the
motherboard through a direct connection or through a dangle .
4.CPU Chip:-
The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the calculations
that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and sizes.Modern CPUs
generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink. The cooling device
(such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU with
a fan permanently attached. 5.RAM slots :-
Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being

used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM
has been packaged in many different ways. The most current package is called a 168-pin
DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module).
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6. Floppy controller:-
The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in turn
connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to control the floppy
drive.
7. IDE controller:-
Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and
SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as
network servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive connects to the hard drive
via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE
controller is responsible for controlling the hard drive.
8. PCI slot:-
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Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus is
used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the
computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.
9. ISA slot:-
(Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard

architecture of the Expansion bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA
compatible cards.
10. CMOS Battery:-
To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all motherboards
comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways:
the obsolete external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery.
11. AGP slot:-
If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single connector
that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also probably
have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot.
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Stands for "Accelerated Graphics Port." AGP is a type of expansion slot designed
specifically for graphics cards. It was developed in 1996 as an alternative to the PCI
standard.
12. CPU slot:-
To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in the slot
make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is
probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power
13. Power supply plug in:-
The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary electrical power to make
the pc operate. the power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and converts into 12-
Volt, 5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.
14.PS/2 Connector:-
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Stands for “Personal System”, and it were designed by IBM in 1987. PS/2 connectors
were used in traditional motherboard for various devices such as mouse and keyboard.
It has 6-pin connector along with mini DIN plug.
15.Cabinet Front Buttons:-
At the front of cabinet, various buttons are embedded such as Power button, Reset
button, Front USB, Front Audio, Power indicator (LED) and HDD LED.
16.Switches and Jumpers:-
There are three types such as DIP (Dual In-Line Package), Jumper pins,
and Jumper caps. DIP switch is placed on the circuit board, and it has
flexibilities for turn on or off. Jumper pins uses for making the bridge to
complete the circuit. Jumper caps to be used to configure the all types of
expansion cards.
17. Heat Sink or Cooling System

You might have heard about the frying of motherboards due to high operating temperatures.
Improper temperatures in the case of motherboards may lead to a reduction in performance and
lower life expectancy over the course of time. Hence, various devices like the heat sink and
cooling fans have been designed to bring down the temperature when the heat is generated by the
motherboard components.
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While most computer are air-cooled, you can also add

modern liquid cooling systems that can bear more heat
when using power-hungry apps and video games:-
You might have heard about the frying of motherboards due to high operating temperatures.
Improper temperatures in the case of motherboards may lead to a reduction in performance and
lower life expectancy over the course of time. Hence, various devices like the heat sink and
cooling fans have been designed to bring down the temperature when the heat is generated by the
motherboard components.
While most computer are air-cooled, you can also add modern liquid cooling systems that can
bear more heat when using power-hungry apps and video games
18.Coil:-
The main goal of coil is to use for eliminates to power spikes and power dips.
19. Northbridge which is directly attached to the CPU through the front side bus (FSB). It uses
the memory controller to contact the RAM chip to transfer data between CPU and RAM. In
addition to this, it also establishes communication with the PCI Express bus.
20. Southbridge links to the USB ports, SATA interface. It doesn’t directly report to the CPU,
and all the information has to pass through the northbridge before reaching the CPU.
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21. Clock Generator
The basic operation of a clock generator is to synchronize the operations of different components
of a motherboard. It generates a clock signal that jumps between high and low frequencies, thus
creating a metronome for the coordination of actions. I won’t jump into its depth to tell you the
technicalities.
an upgrade over the conventional PCI and PCI-X expansion bus standards.
22. Storage Connectors

Motherboards are equipped with connectors for attaching storage devices like magnetic hard
drives, optical drives, and SSDs. These devices work through an interface known as SATA.
SATA or Serial ATA is also a computer bus that enables a connection between the storage media
and the computer through the host bus adapters present on the motherboard.
Various SATA versions, namely SATA 3.2, mSATA, eSATA, etc., exist and are used depending
on the configuration of the machine. For example, mSATA or mini-SATA is used for SSDs and
hard drives installed on laptops.
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23. Power Connectors
Computers have a main power supply unit, but it’s not possible to deliver power to all the
components directly from it. Hence, power connectors are used to distribute the power from the
main supply to various components like RAM, CPU, chipset, and expansion cards.
Some modern expansion cards like the high-end graphics cards require more power, which can’t
be provided by the main power connectors of the computer. So, these graphics cards come with
their own power connectors to get the right amount of electrical power.
Motherboards also have Flash ROM, which is a non-volatile memory chip used to store the BIOS
of the system. Apart from these, additional components like the USB (Universal Service Bus),
disk controllers, ethernet controllers, etc. exist on the motherboard. Modern motherboards also
have integrated graphic chips (like Intel HD Graphics) and sound cards that are directly soldered
on them. The internal graphics cards are capable of handling the basic graphics processing of the
machine and provide video output through VGA and HDMI ports.
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MICROPROCESSOR
What is a Microprocessor?
Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single

Integrated Circuit (IC) is called a microprocessor.
A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU

is called microcomputer.
It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based

electronic device that reads binary instructions from a storage
device called memory, accepts binary data as input and
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processes data according to those instructions and provides

results as output.
The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like

transistors, registers, and diodes that work together.
Block Diagram of a Microcomputer
A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register

array. Where ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on
the data received from an input device or memory. Control unit
controls the instructions and flow of data within the computer.
And, register array consists of registers identified by letters like
B, C, D, E, H, L, and accumulator.
Evolution of Microprocessors
We can categorize the microprocessor according to the

generations or according to the size of the microprocessor:
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First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)
The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year

1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It was named Intel 4004 since
it was a 4-bit processor.
It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple

arithmetic and logical operations such as addition, subtraction,
Boolean OR and Boolean AND.
I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like

fetching an instruction from storage memory, decoding it, and
then generating control pulses to execute it.
Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)
The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973

again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit microprocessor which could
perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was
Intel 8008, and another improved version was Intel 8088.
Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)
The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were

represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog Z800 and 80286, which
were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.
Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)
Several different companies introduced the 32-bit

microprocessors, but the most popular one is the Intel 80386.
Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856,

Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium processor
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followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a

single system to achieve multiprocessing.
Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad,

Octa Core processors.
Table: Important Intel Microprocessors

Microp Yea W Memo Pin Cl Remarks
rocess r of or ry s oc
or Inv d addres k
enti Le sing
on ng Capaci
th ty
4004 19 4 1 KB 1 7 First
71 - 6 5 Microp
b 0 rocess
it K or
H
z
8085 19 8 64 4 3 Popula
76 - KB 0 - r 8-bit
b 6 Microp
it M rocess
H or
z
8086 19 1 1MB 4 5 Widely

78 6 0 - used
- 8 in
b M PC/XT
it H
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8028 19 1 16M 6 6 Widely

6 82 6 B 8 - used
- real, 1 in
b 4 GB 2 PC/AT
it virtu .
al 5
M
H
z
8038 19 3 4GB 1 2 Contai

6 85 2 real, 3 0 ns
- 64TB 2 - MMU
b virtu 1 3 on
it al 4 3 chip
X M
1 H
4 z
P
G
A
8048 19 3 4GB 1 2 Contai

6 89 2 real, 6 5 ns
- 64TB 8 - MMU,
b virtu 1 1 cache
it al 7 0 and
X 0 FPU,
1 M 1.2
7 H million
P z transis
G tors
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Penti 19 3 4GB 2 6 Contai

um 93 2 real, 3 0 ns 2
- 32- 7 - ALUs,
b bit P 2 2
it addr G 0 Cache
ess, A 0 s,
64- FPU,
bit 3.3
data Million
bus transis
tors,
3.3 V,
7.5
million
transis
tors
Penti 19 3 64G 3 1 It is a
um 95 2 B 8 5 data
Pro - real, 7 0 flow
b 36- P - proces
it bit G 2 sor. It
addr A 0 contai
ess 0 ns
bus M secon
H d level
z cache
also,3.
3V
Penti 19 3 - - 2 All
um 97 2 3 featur
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II - 3 es
b - Pentiu
it 4 m pro
0 plus
0 MMX
M techn
H ology,
z 3.3 V,
7.5
million
transis
tors
Penti 19 3 64G 3 6 Impro

um 99 2 B 7 0 ved
III - 0 0 versio
b P - n of
it G 1 Pentiu
A . m II;
3 70
M new
H SIMD
z instru
ctions
Penti 20 3 64G 4 6 Impro

um 4 00 2 B 2 0 ved
- 3 0 versio
b P - n of
it G 1 Pentiu
A . m III
3
G
H
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Itani 20 6 64 4 7 64-bit
um 01 4 addr 2 3 EPIC
- ess 3 3 Proces
b lines P M sor
it G H
A z
-
1
.
3
G
H
z
Where,
o PGA - Pin Grid Array

o MMX - MultiMedia eXtensions
o EPIC - Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing
o SIMD - Single Instruction Multiple Data
o ALU - Arithmetic and Logic Unit
o MMU - Memory Management Unit
o FPU - Floating Point Unit
Basic Terms used in Microprocessor
Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:
Instruction Set - The group of commands that the

microprocessor can understand is called Instruction set. It is an
interface between hardware and software.
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Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or

control information to different elements in a microprocessor. A
microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus,
address bus, and control bus.
IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many

instructions a CPU is capable of executing in a single clock.
Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the

processor can perform. It can be expressed in megahertz (MHz)
or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.
Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single

instruction is called Bandwidth.
Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at

a time is called the word length of the processor. 8-bit
Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of
word length is from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of
the microcomputer.
Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type

formats like binary, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.
Working of Microprocessor
The microprocessor follows a sequence to execute the

instruction: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the storage memory of the

computer in sequential order. The microprocessor fetches those
instructions from the stored area (memory), then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is met. Then, it
sends the result in binary form to the output port. Between these
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processes, the register stores the temporary data and ALU

(Arithmetic and Logic Unit) performs the computing functions.
Features of Microprocessor
o Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology
microprocessors are available at very low cost. It will reduce
the cost of a computer system.
o High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the
microprocessor can work at very high speed. It can execute
millions of instructions per second.
o Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less
footprint due to very large scale and ultra large scale
integration technology. Because of this, the size of the
computer system is reduced.
o Versatile - The same chip can be used for several
applications, therefore, microprocessors are versatile.
o Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using
metal oxide semiconductor technology, which consumes less
power.
o Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses
semiconductor technology which will not emit much heat as
compared to vacuum tube devices.
o Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor
technology, therefore, the failure rate is very less. Hence it
is very reliable.
o Portable - Due to the small size and low power
consumption microprocessors are portable
Types of Microprocessors
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Vector Processors
A vector processor is designed for vector computations. A

vector is an array of operands of the same type. Consider the
following vectors:
Vector A (a1, a2, a3, ......., an)
Vector B (b1, b2, b3,......., bn)
Vector C = Vector A + Vector B
= C(c1, c2, c3, .......,cn), where c1 = a1+ b1,
c2 = a2 + b2, .....,Cn= an + bn.
A vector processor adds all the elements of vector A and Vector B

using a single vector instruction with hardware approach.
Examples of vector processors are:
o DEC's VAX 9000,

o IBM 390/VF,
o CRAY Research Y-MP family,
o Hitachi's S-810/20, etc.
Array Processors or SIMD Processors
Array processors are also designed for vector computations.

The difference between an array processor and a vector
processor is that a vector processor uses multiple vector
pipelines whereas an array processor employs a number of
processing elements to operate in parallel.
An array processor contains multiple numbers of ALUs. Each ALU

is provided with the local memory. The ALU together with the
local memory is called a Processing Element (PE). An array
processor is a SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple
Data) processor. Thus using a single instruction, the same
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operation can be performed on an array of data which makes it

suitable for vector computations.
Fig:- Schematic Diagram of an Array Processor or SIMD

Processor
Scalar and Superscalar Processors
A processor that executes scalar data is called scalar processor.

The simplest scalar processor makes processing of only integer
instruction using fixed-points operands. A powerful scalar
processor makes processing of both integer as well floating-
point numbers. It contains an integer ALU and a Floating Point
Unit (FPU) on the same CPU chip.
A scalar processor may be RISC processor or CISC

processor.
Examples of CISC processors are:
o Intel 386, 486; Motorola's 68030, 68040; etc.
Examples of RISC scalar processors are:
o Intel i860, Motorola MC8810, SUN's SPARC CY7C601, etc.
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A superscalar processor has multiple pipelines and executes

more than one instruction per clock cycle.
Examples of superscalar processors are:
o Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, etc.
RISC and CISC Processors
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer and
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer.
There are two approaches of the design of the control unit of a

microprocessor i.e.-
o Hardware approach and

o Software approach.
RISC Processors:- To execute an instruction, a number of steps

are required. By the control unit of the processor, a number of
control signals are generated for each step. To execute each
instruction, if there is a separate electronic circuitry in the control
unit, which produces all the necessary signals, this approach of
the design of the control section of the processor is
called RISC design. It is hardware approach. It is also called
hard-wired approach.
Examples of RISC processors are:
o DEC's Alpha 21064, 21164 and 21264 processors;

o SUN's SPARC and ULTRA SPARC;
o PowerPC processors etc.
CISC Processors:- If the control unit contains a number of

micro electronic circuitry to generate a set of control signals and
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each micro circuitry is activated by a microcode, this design

approach is called CISC design. This is a software approach of
designing a control unit of the processor.
Examples of CISC processors are:
o Intel 386, 486;

o Pentium Pro, Pentium, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4;
o Motorola's 68000, 68020, 68030, 68040, etc.
Difference between RISC and CISC
S.No RISC CISC

.
1. Simple Complex
instruction set instruction set
2. Consists of Less number

Large number of registers
of registers.
3. Larger Smaller
Program program
4. Simple Complex
processor processor
circuitry circuitry (more
(small number number of
of transistors) transistors)
5. More RAM Little Ram

usage usage
6. Simple Variety of
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addressing addressing
modes modes
7. Fixed length Variable

instructions length
instructions
8. Fixed number Variable

of clock cycles number of
for executing clock cycles
one for each
instruction instructions
Digital Signal Processors (DSP)
DSP microprocessors specifically designed to process signals.

They receive some digitized signal information, perform some
mathematical operations on the information and give the result
to an output device. They implement integration, differentiation,
complex fast Fourier transform, etc. using hardware.
Examples of digital signal processors are:
o Texas instruments' TMS 320C25,

o Motorola 56000,
o National LM 32900,
o Fujitsu MBB 8764, etc.
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Symbolic Processors
Symbolic processors are designed for expert system, machine

intelligence, knowledge based system, pattern-recognition, text
retrieval, etc.
The basic operations which are performed for artificial

intelligence are:
Logic interference, compare, search, pattern matching, filtering,

unification, retrieval, reasoning, etc. This type of processing does
not require floating point operations. Symbolic processors are
also called LISP processors or PROLOG processors.
Bit-Slice Processors
The processor of desired word length is developed using the

building blocks. The basic building block is called Bit-Slice where
the building blocks include 4-bit ALUs, micro programs
sequencers, carry look-ahead generators, etc. The word 'slice'
was used because the desired number of ALUs and other
components were used to build an 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit CPU.
Examples of Bit-Slice Processors were:
o AMD-2900, AMD 2909, AMD 2910, AMD 29300 series,

o Texas instrument's SN-74AS88XX series, etc.
Transputers
In a multiprocessor system, a transputer is a specially designed

microprocessor to operate as a component processor.
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Transputers were introduced in late 1980's. They were built on

VLSI chip and contained a processor, memory and
communication links. The communication link was to provide
point-to-point connection between transputers.
A transputer contains FPU, on-chip RAM, high-speed serial link,

etc.
Examples of transputers are:
o INMOS T414, INMOS T800, etc.
Where, T414 was a 32-bit processor with 2 KB memory. The

T800 was FPU version of 32-bit transputer with 4 KB memory.
Graphic Processors
Graphics Processors are specially designed processors for

graphics. Intel has developed Intel 740-3D graphics chip. It is
optimized for Pentium II PCs, using a hyper pipelined 3D
architecture with additional 2D acceleration. Like most 3D
graphics chips, the I-740 will be marketed in performance, not
the main stream category. It is designed mostly for such heavy
multimedia uses as games and movies.
Examples of Graphic Processors are:
o Intel 82786 graphics coprocessor

o IBM's ss8514/A,
o Texas Instruments' TMS34010 and TMS34020,
o Intel i860 and Intel i750, etc.
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Microprocessor Architecture
The microprocessor is the CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a

computer. It is the heart of the computer. Here, we will describe
Intel 8085 as it is one of the most popular 8-bit microprocessor.
Intel 8085
Intel 8085 is an 8-bit, NMOS microprocessor designed by Intel in

1977.
It has following configuration:
o It is a 40 pin I.C. package fabricated on a single LSI chip.

o The Intel 8085 uses a single +5Vd.c. supply for its
operation.
o Intel 8085?s clock speed is about 3 MHz; the clock cycle is of
320ns.
o 8 ?bit data bus.
o Address bus is of 16-bit, which can address up to 64KB
o 16-bit stack pointer
o 16 bit PC (Program Counter)
o Six 8-bit registers are arranged in pairs :BC, DE, HL
Intel 8085 is used in mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing

machines etc.
The below diagram shows the block diagram of Intel 8085:
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ALU
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit, ALU performs the arithmetic

and logical operations:
o Addition
o Subtraction
o Logical AND
o Logical OR
o Logical EXCLUSIVE OR
o Complement (Logical NOT)
o Increment (add 1)
o Decrement (subtract 1)
o Left shift, Rotate left, Rotate right
o Clear, etc.
Timing and Control Unit
The timing and control unit is the section of the CPU.
o It is used to generate timing and control signals which are

necessary for the execution of instructions.
o It is used to control data flow between CPU and peripherals
(including memory).
o It is used to provide status, control and timing signals which
are required for the operation of memory and I/O devices.
o It is used to control the entire operations of the
microprocessor and peripherals connected to it.
Thus we can see that the control unit of the CPU acts as the
brain of the computer system.
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Registers
Registers are used for temporary storage and manipulation of

data and instructions by the microprocessor. Data remain in the
registers till they are sent to the I/O devices or memory. Intel
8085 microprocessor has the following registers:
o One 8-bit accumulator (ACC) i.e. register A

o Six general purpose registers of 8-bit, these are B,C, D, E, H
and L
o One 16-bit stack pointer, SP
o One 16-bit Program Counter, PC
o Instruction register
o Temporary register
In addition to the above mentioned registers the 8085

microprocessor contains a set of five flip-flops which serve as
flags (or status flags).
A flag is a flip-flop which indicates some conditions which arises

after the execution of an arithmetic or logical instruction.
a. Accumulator (ACC): The accumulator is an 8-bit register

associated with the ALU. The register 'A' is an accumulator in
the 8085. It is used to hold one of the operands of an
arithmetic and logical operation.
The final result of an arithmetic or logical operation is also
placed in the accumulator.
b. General-Purpose Registers: The 8085 microprocessor
contains six 8-bit general purpose registers. They are: B, D,
C, E, H and L register.
To hold data of 16-bit a combination of two 8-bit registers
can be employed.
The combination of two 8-bit registers is called register
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pair. The valid register pairs in the 8085 are: D-E, B-C and
H-L. The H-L pair is used to act as a memory pointer.
c. Program Counter (PC): It is a 16-bit special purpose
register. It is used to hold the address of memory of the
next instruction to be executed. It keeps the track of the
instruction in a program while they are being executed.
The microprocessor increments the content of the next
program counter during the execution of an instruction so
that at the end of the execution of an instruction it points to
the next instruction?s address in the program.
d. Stack Pointer (SP): It is a 16-bit special function register
used as memory pointer. A stack is nothing but a portion of
RAM. In the stack, the contents of only those registers are
saved, which are needed in the later part of the program.
The stack pointer (SP) controls the addressing of the stack.
The Stack Pointer contains the address of the top element of
data stored in the stack.
e. Instruction Register: The instruction register holds the
opcode (operation code or instruction code) of the
instruction which is being decoded and executed.
f. Temporary Register: It is an 8-bit register associated with
the ALU. It holds data during an arithmetic/logical operation.
It is used by the microprocessor. It is not accessible to
programmer.
g. Flags: The Intel 8085 microprocessor contains five flip-flops
to serve as a status flags. The flip-flops are reset or set
according to the conditions which arise during an arithmetic
or logical operation.
The five status flags of Intel 8085 are:
o Carry Flag (CS)

o Parity Flag (P)
o Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC)
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o Zero Flag(Z)
o Sign Flag(S)
If a flip-flop for a particular flag is set, then it indicates 1. When

it is reset, it indicates 0.
Data and Address Bus

o The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor. Its data bus is 8-
bit wide and therefore, 8 bits of data can be transmitted in
parallel from or to the microprocessor.
o The Intel 8085 requires an address bus of 16-bit wide as
the memory addresses are of 16-bits.
o The 8 most significant bits of the address are transmitted by
the address bus, A-bus (pins A8 ? A15).
o The 8 least significant bits of the address are transmitted by
data/address bus, AD-bus (pins AD0 ? AD7).
Pin Configuration
Fig: Pin diagram of Intel 8085 microprocessor
The descriptions of various pins are as follows:
Address Bus and Data Bus
o A8 ? A15 (Output): These are address bus and are used for
the most significant bits of the memory address or 8-bits of
I/O address.
o AD0 ? AD7 (Input/output): These are time
multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual
purpose. They are used for the least significant 8 bits of the
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memory address or I/O address during the first cycle. Again

they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
Control and Status Signals
o ALE (Output): ALE stands for Address Latch

Enable signal. ALE goes high during first clock cycle of a
machine cycle and enables the lower 8-bits of the address to
be latched either into the memory or external latch.
o IO/M (Output): It is a status signal which distinguishes
whether the address is for memory or I/O device.
o S0, S1 (Output): These are status signals sent by the
microprocessors to distinguish the various types of operation
given in table below:
Status codes for Intel 8085
S1 S0 Operations
0 0 HALT
0 1 WRITE
1 0 READ
1 1 FETCH
o RD (Output): RD is a signal to control READ operation.

When it goes low, the selected I/O device or memory is
read.
o WR (Output): WR is a signal to control WRITE
operation. When it goes low, the data bus' data is written
into the selected memory or I/O location.
o READY (Input): It is used by the microprocessor to sense
whether a peripheral is ready to transfer a data or not. If
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READY is high, the peripheral is ready. If it is low the micro

processor waits till it goes high.
Interrupts and Externally Initiated Signals
o HOLD (INPUT): HOLD indicates that another device is

requesting for the use of the address and data bus.
o HLDA (OUTPUT): HLDA is a signal for HOLD
acknowledgement which indicates that the HOLD request
has been received. After the removal of this request the
HLDA goes low.
o INTR (Input): INTR is an Interrupt Request Signal.
Among interrupts it has the lowest priority. The INTR is
enabled or disabled by software.
o INTA (Output): INTA is an interrupt
acknowledgement sent by the microprocessor after INTR
is received.
o RST 5.5, 6.5, 7.5 and TRAP (Inputs): These all are
interrupts. When any interrupt is recognized the next
instruction is executed from a fixed location in the memory
as given below:
Line Location from which next

instruction is picked up
TRAP 0024
RST 002C
5.5
RST 0034
6.5
RST 003C
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7.5
RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5 are the restart interrupts which
cause an internal restart to be automatically inserted.
The TRAP has the highest priority among interrupts. The order of
priority of interrupts is as follows:
o TRAP (Highest priority)

o RST 7.5
o RST 6.5
o RST 5.5
o INTR (Lowest priority).
Reset Signals
o RESET IN (Input): It resets the program counter (PC) to 0.

It also resets interrupt enable and HLDA flip-flops. The CPU
is held in reset condition till RESET is not applied.
o RESET OUT (Output): RESET OUT indicates that the CPU is
being reset.
Clock Signals
o X1, X2 (Input): X1 and X2 are terminals to be connected to

an external crystal oscillator which drives an internal
circuitry of the microprocessor. It is used to produce a
suitable clock for the operation of microprocessor.
o CLK (Output): CLK is a clock output for user, which can
be used for other digital ICs. Its frequency is same at which
processor operates.
Serial I/O Signals
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o SID (Input): SID is data line for serial input. The data on
this line is loaded into the seventh bit of the accumulator
when RIM instruction is executed.
o SOD (Output): SOD is a data line for serial output. The
seventh bit of the accumulator is output on SOD line when
SIM instruction is executed.
Power Supply
Vcc : +5 Vlots supply
Vss : ground reference
8085 Instructions
An instruction of computer is a command given to the computer

to perform a specified operation on given data. Some instructions
of Intel 8085 microprocessor are: MOV, MVI, LDA, STA, ADD,
SUB, RAL, INR, MVI, etc.
Opcode and Operands
Each instruction contains two parts: Opcode (Operation code)

and Operand.
The 1st part of an instruction which specifies the task to be

performed by the computer is called Opcode.
The 2nd part of the instruction is the data to be operated on, and
it is called Operand. The Operand (or data) given in the
instruction may be in various forms such as 8-bit or 16-bit data,
8-bit or 16-bit address, internal registers or a register or memory
location.
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Instruction Word Size
A digital computer understands instruction written in binary

codes (machine codes). The binary codes of all instructions are
not of the same length.
According to the word size, the Intel 8085 instructions are

classified into the following three types:
1. One byte instruction

2. Two byte instruction
3. Three byte instruction
1. One-byte instruction: Examples of one byte instructions

are:
o MOV A, B - Move the content of the register B to register A.

o ADD B ? Add the content of register B to the content of the
accumulator.
All the above two examples are only one byte long. All one-byte
instructions contain information regarding operands in the
opcode itself.
2. Two-byte instruction: In a two byte instruction the first byte

of the instruction is its opcode and the second byte is either data
or address.
Example:
MVI B, 05; 05 moved to register B.
06, 05; MVI B, 05 is in the code form.
The first byte 06 is the opcode for MVI B and second byte 05 is
the data which is to be moved to register B.
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3. Three-byte instruction: The first byte of the instruction is its

opcode and the second and third bytes are either 16-bit data or
16-bit address.
Example:
LXI H, 2400H; Load H-L Pair with 2400H
21, 00, 24; LXI H, 2400H in the code form
The first byte 21 is the opcode for the instruction LXI H. The
second 00 is 8 LSBs of the data (2400H), which is loaded into
register L. The third byte 24 is 8 MSBs of the data (2400H),
which is loaded into register H.
Instruction Cycle
The time required to fetch an instruction and necessary data

from memory and to execute it, is called an instruction cycle.
Or the total time required to execute an instruction is given by:
IC = FC + EC
Where,
IC = Instruction Cycle
FC = Fetch Cycle
EC = Execute Cycle
Timing Diagram for Instruction Cycle
o Fetch the instruction (Fetch Cycle)
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In the beginning of the fetch cycle, the content of the program

counter (PC), which is the address of the memory location where
opcode is available, is sent to the memory. The memory puts the
opcode on the data bus so as to transfer it to the CPU.
The whole operation of fetching an opcode takes three clock

cycles. A slow memory may take more time.
o Decode the instruction (Decode Cycle)
The opcode fetched from the memory goes to the data register,
DR and then to instruction register, IR. From the IR it goes to the
decoder circuitry which decodes the instruction. Decoder circuitry
is within the microprocessor.
o Execute the Instruction (Execute Cycle)
After the instruction is decoded, execution begins.
If the operand is reside the general purpose registers, execution

is immediately performed. The time taken in decoding and
execution of an instruction is one clock cycle.
In some situations, an execute cycle may involve one or more

read or write cycles or both.
Read Cycle: If an instruction contains data or operand address

which are in the memory, the CPU has to perform some read
operations to get the desired data. In case of a read cycle the
instruction received from the memory are data or operand
address instead of an opcode.
Write Cycle: In write cycle data are sent from the CPU to the
memory or an output device.
o Machine Cycle and State
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The necessary steps carried out to perform the operation of

accessing either memory or input output device, constitute
a machine cycle. In other words, necessary steps carried out to
perform a fetch, a read or a write operation constitutes a
machine cycle.
One sub-division of an operation performed in one clock cycle is

called a state or T-state. In short, one clock cycle of the system
clock is referred to as a state.
Timing Diagram
The necessary steps carried out in a machine cycle can be

represented graphically. Such a graphical representation is
called timing diagram. The timing diagram for opcode fetch,
memory read, memory write, I/O read and I/O write will be
discussed below:
o Timing Diagram for Opcode Fetch Cycle:
o Timing Diagram for Memory Read
o Timing Diagram for Memory Write
o Timing Diagram for I/O Read
o Timing Diagram for I/O Write
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In the above diagrams, the basic used parameters are:
ALE: ALE indicates the availability of a valid address on the

multiplexed address/data lines. When it is high or 1, then it acts
as an address bus and when low or 0, then it acts as a data bus.
RD (low active): If it is high or 1, then no data is read by the

microprocessor. If signal is low or 0, then data is read by the
microprocessor.
WR (low active): If it is high or 1, then no data is written by

the microprocessor. If signal is low or 0, then data is written by
the microprocessor.
IO/M (low active): A high or 1 on this signal indicates I/O

operation while a low or 0 indicates memory operation.
S0, S1: S0 and S1 Indicate the type of machine cycle in progress.
The below table, shows the status of different control signal for
different operation:
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• What is cable?
A data cable is a cable that provides communication between
devices. ... For example, the data cable (i.e., DVI, HDMI, or VGA)
that connects your monitor to your computer allow it to display a
picture on the monitor. Other popular examples of
data cables include the CAT5, IDE/EIDE, SATA, and
USB cables.
1.VGA Cable
➢ Types of cable
Connect one end to: computer monitor, television (PC input port)
Connect other end to: VGA port on computer (see image below)
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2. DVI Cable
Connect one end to: computer monitor
Connect other end to: DVI port on computer (see image below)
However there are 2 types of DVI, DVI-I and DVI-D.

DVI-D does not have the extra pins around the long pin, this is also a pure digital signal over DVI-I.
3. HDMI Cable
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Connect one end to: computer monitor, television
Connect other end to: HDMI port on computer (see image below)
Note: If you're hooking up a television to your computer, then we would recommend that you use a HDMI
cable as your PC cable connection since it is able to transmit both display and sound - So you can not only use
your TV screen as a monitor, but also make use of your TV speakers to play PC audio.
4. PS/2 Cable
Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse
Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below)
 Purple PS/2 port: keyboard

 Green PS/2 port: mouse
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5. Ethernet Cable
Also known as RJ-45 cable
Connect one end to: router, network switch
Connect other end to: Ethernet port on computer (see image below)
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6. 3.5mm Audio Cable

Also known as phone connector (since 3.5mm jacks are often found on mobile phones too)
Connect one end to: computer speakers, 3.5mm headphones, 3.5mm microphone
Connect other end to: audio ports on computer (see image below use Green socket)
 Green audio port: computer speakers or headphones

 Pink audio port: microphone
 Blue audio port: MP3 player, CD player, DVD player, turntable, electric guitar etc (line-in port to play and
record sounds from the above devices)
7. USB Cable
For USB computer cable connections, there are two popular formats: USB 2.0 and the newer USB 3.0
How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 cables apart: USB 3.0 cables have a blue tip, and sometimes you can find a SS
"Super Speed" label on it.
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Since USB was intended to be the one computer cable connection to replace them all, it's no surprise that the
possible uses for a USB port are quite mind-blowing. For this computer cable guide, we have listed its more
common uses below:
Connect one end to: USB device
 Storage devices: USB flash drive, external hard drive, external optical drive
 Input devices: USB keyboard (wired and wireless), USB mouse (wired and wireless), webcam, scanner,
gamepad
 Output devices: printer, all-in-one office machine, USB speaker
 Wireless adapters: network (Wi-Fi) adapter, bluetooth adapter, 3G adapter
 Data (and charging) cable for mobile devices such as mobile phone, tablet, MP3 player
Connect other end to: USB ports on computer (see image below)
How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 ports apart: USB 2.0 ports have black tips while USB 3.0 ports come with blue
tips. See image below:
USB 3.0 is backwards-compatible... meaning that you can connect a USB 2.0 device to a USB 3.0 port and
vice versa (but the USB 3.0 devices hooked up to a USB 2.0 port will perform at lowered rates)
There are also USB cables which connect new external backup drives (see below), these are described as
USB-A to Micro-B
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8. Computer Power Cord (Kettle Plug)
Connect one end to: AC power socket
Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer monitor
Note: Always turn off your power supply unit (with the 1-0 switch at the back) before connecting a power
cord to it.
9. ThunderBolt/USB-C
Mostly seen on laptops and Apple Macs these cables are high speed and are capable of carrying Data, video
and other information.
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There are 2 current types of Thunderbolt, the older version Thunderbolt 2 is seen below but this can also be
confused with Mini Display ports as they look identical and only visual difference is the picture beside the
port. Thunderbolt 2 (left) has a lightning symbol and carries Data and video.
The Mini Display Port (right) will only carry Video.
And Thunderbolt 3 also known as USB-C on Apple Macs.
10. Display Port
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Display Port is the best to use if you require a fast, high-resolution image.
The cable has better quality over HDMI and is the best option if you have this interface.
➢ What is connector?
A connector is a device that terminates a segment of
cabling or provides a point of entry for networking
devices such as computers, hubs, and routers
Types of Connectors:
1. Rectangular Connectors: Rectangular Connectors, a system of housings, inserts and contacts that come together
to offer robust, secure and easy to assemble solution. A range of inserts suitable for all the rectangular connector
housings, available from 3 pin contacts up to 64 dependent on your voltage and current requirements.
Rectangular industrial connectors designed to transmit power, data and signal in the toughest of conditions.
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2. Backplane Connectors: This type of connector is engineered to increase data rates and decrease signal rise,
delivering a more reliable high-speed transmission with greater clarity. This enables high signal integrity (SI) and
electrical performance. It is a group of electrical connectors in parallel with each. To transmit information, Serial
Back-Plane technology uses a low-voltage differential signalling transmission method for sending information.
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3. Coaxial Connectors: Coaxial connectors are designed to maintain a coaxial form across the
connection and have the same impedance as the attached cable. Connectors are usually plated
with high-conductivity metals such as silver or tarnish-resistant gold. coaxial connectors have the
capacity to carry vast quantities of information. They are commonly referred to as 'coax'
connectors.
4. D-shaped Connectors: A D-sub contains two or more parallel rows of pins or sockets usually
surrounded by a D-shaped metal shield that provides mechanical support, ensures correct
orientation, and may screen against electromagnetic interference. The D-sub series of connectors
was introduced by Cannon in 1952. D-shaped connectors are made to exceed expectations in
extreme commercial and military applications
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BTCS-204 Computer peripheral and Interface
5. Barrel Audio/Power Connectors: Barrel connectors are typically found on low-cost consumer
electronics which can be plugged into wall power via bulky AC wall adaptors. Wall adaptors are
widely available, in a variety of power ratings and voltages, making barrel connectors a common
means for connecting power to small projects. Power connectors can carry either an alternating
current (AC) or direct current (DC).
6. USB,DVI,HDMI Connectors: USB connectors are designed specifically to connect devices that use
the universal serial bus (USB) protocol. They are used to connect personal computers (PCs) and
peripherals such as mice, keyboards, printers, digital cameras, and mass storage devices. The USB
interface is one of the most used interfaces at this moment to connect peripheral equipment to
computers.
Ritik Sahu Page no=3

7. Card edge Connectors: An edge connector is the portion of a printed circuit board consisting of
traces leading to the edge of the board that are intended to plug into a matching socket. The edge
connector is a money-saving device because it only requires a single discrete, and they also tend to
be fairly robust and durable. They are commonly used in computers for expansion slots for
peripheral cards, such as PCI, PCI Express, and AGP cards.
8. Pluggable Connectors: Luggable PCB connectors present you a universal system for your devices. A
wide range of applications thanks to: Pluggable PCB connectors, through panel connectors, flying
connections for different mounting types, and pluggable connectors for rail-mount terminal blocks.

9. Fibre optic Connectors: An optical fibre connector terminates the end of an optical fibre, and
enables quicker connection and disconnection than splicing. The connectors mechanically couple
and align the cores of fibres so light can pass. Better connectors lose very little light due to
reflection or misalignment of the fibres. The fibre optic connector basically consists of a rigid
cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve.
10. Modular Connectors: A modular connector is a type of electrical connector for cords and cables of
electronic devices and appliances, such in computer networking, telecommunication equipment,
and audio headsets. Probably the best known applications of modular connectors are for telephone
and Ethernet. The most common uses of modular connectors are for plugging a telephone into the
wall.


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SHRI VAISHNAV VIDYAPEETH VISHWAVIDYALAYA, INDORE

SHRI VAISHNAV INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Department of Computer Science Engineering

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Pallavi kala. Ritik sahu

SHRI VAISHNAV VIDHYAPEETH VISHWAVIDYALAYA

Shri Vaishnav Institute of Information Technology

01 20/10/2020 Motherboard and its components

03 19/11/2020 Cable and connector’s

What is a Motherboard And Write Its

How big is a Motherboard?

1.MOUSE AND KEYBOARD :-

2. USB (Universal serial bus) :-

Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being

(Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard

10. CMOS Battery:-

11. AGP slot:-

12. CPU slot:-

13. Power supply plug in:-

15.Cabinet Front Buttons:-

16.Switches and Jumpers:-

17. Heat Sink or Cooling System

While most computer are air-cooled, you can also add

21. Clock Generator

22. Storage Connectors

23. Power Connectors

Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single

A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU

It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based

processes data according to those instructions and provides

The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like

Block Diagram of a Microcomputer

A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register

We can categorize the microprocessor according to the

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year

It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple

I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit

Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)

From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856,

followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a

Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad,

Table: Important Intel Microprocessors

8086 19 1 1MB 4 5 Widely

8028 19 1 16M 6 6 Widely

8038 19 3 4GB 1 2 Contai

8048 19 3 4GB 1 2 Contai

Penti 19 3 4GB 2 6 Contai

Penti 19 3 64G 3 6 Impro

Penti 20 3 64G 4 6 Impro

o PGA - Pin Grid Array

Basic Terms used in Microprocessor

Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:

Instruction Set - The group of commands that the

Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or

IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many

Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the