Basic Principles In Psychology

Introduction

CH1: Introduction to
Psychology
:
Introduction
Introduction to Psychology
In general, psychology is defined as the scientific study behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s: • physical state (biological), • mental state (psychological), and • external environment.

1-To describe how people and other species behave

2-To understand the causes of these behaviors
3-To predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions
4-To influence behavior through the control of its causes
5-To apply psychological knowledge in ways that enhance human welfare.
knowledge depends on a lot of the user. Some use knowledge of psychology for personal profit, political gain, or
manipulating others or others can use it to help society.
The main subject of psychology is General psychology , It is the foundation of studying science of psychology that deals
with basic principles, problems and methods of human development, emotions, motivation, learning, memory, senses,
thinking, perception, processing, and intelligence.
Introduction
Basic Psychology Facts You Need to Know
Psychology may seem like a vast and daunting topic at first, but understanding a few basic facts can make it easier to get
started. The following are just a few of the important things you need to know about this fascinating subject. Once you
have a strong understanding of the basics, you will be better prepared to explore different ways that psychology may help
improve your everyday life, health, and well-being.
Psychology Is the Study of the Mind and Behavior
First, let's start by addressing exactly what psychology involves. Psychology can be defined as the study of mental
processes and behavior. The term psychology comes from the Greek word psyche meaning "breath, spirit, soul" and the
word ology meaning "study of."
Psychology has not always existed as it has today. In fact, it is considered a relatively modern discipline, although as one
eminent psychologist explained, it has a short past but a long history.
Psychology emerged from biology and philosophy and is closely linked to other disciplines including sociology, medicine,
linguistics, and anthropology.
While psychology may be modern subject in the grand scheme of things, it has grown to play a tremendous role in the
world today. Psychologists are employed in hospitals, mental health clinics, schools, colleges and universities, government
agencies, private businesses, and private practice and perform a wide variety of tasks and roles ranging from treating
mental illness to influencing public health policy.
Introduction
Psychology Relies on Scientific Methods
One of the most common myths about psychology is that it is just "common sense." The problem with this is that
psychological research has helped demonstrate that many of the things that we believe are just common sense are
actually not true at all. After all, if common sense were as common as people say it is, then people wouldn’t engage in
behaviors that they know are bad for them like smoking or eating junk food.
By challenging some of our misconceptions about how and why people behave as they do, psychologists are able to
provide answers that help solve real-world problems.
Unlike common sense, psychology relies on scientific methods to investigate questions and arrive at conclusions. It is
through using empirical methods that researchers are able to discover relationships between different variables.
Psychologists use a range of techniques to study the human mind and behavior, including naturalistic observation,
experiments, case studies, and questionnaires.1
Psychologists Tackle Problems From Multiple Perspectives
Topics and questions in psychology can be looked at in a number of different ways. Let's take the topic of violence as an
example. Some psychologists may look at how biological influences contribute to violence, while other psychologists might
look at how factors such as culture, family relationships, social pressure, and situational variables influence violence.
Some of the major perspectives in psychology include the:
• Biological perspective
• Cognitive perspective
• Behavioral perspective
• Evolutionary perspective
• Humanistic perspective
Introduction
Psychology Is About More Than Mental Health
When you think of psychology, do you envision a therapist jotting down notes as a client recounts childhood experiences? While
therapy is certainly a big part of psychology, it is not the only thing that psychologists do. In fact, many psychologists don't work in
the field of mental health at all. Psychology encompasses other areas including teaching, research, and consulting.
Psychologists work in a wide variety of settings, including:
• Colleges and universities
• Private corporations
• K-12 Schools
• Hospitals
• Government offices
Mental health is certainly a major area of interest in psychology, but psychologists also do things such as help athletes hone their
motivation and mental focus, help design products that are safe and useful and help businesses understand how to influence
consumers.
Psychology Is All Around You
Psychology is not just an academic subject that exists only in classrooms, research labs, and mental health offices. The principles
of psychology can be seen all around you in everyday situations.
The television commercials and print ads you see every day rely on psychology to develop marketing messages that influence
and persuade people to purchase the advertised products. The websites you visit on a regular basis utilize psychology to
understand how people read, use, and interpret online information.
Introduction
Psychology can also play a role in improving your health and well-being. For example, understanding some of the basic
principles of behavioral psychology might come in handy if you are trying to break a bad habit and establish new routines.
Knowing more about some of the things that motivate behavior can be useful if you are trying to stick to a weight loss plan
or exercise regimen. Overcoming phobias, managing stress, improving communication skills, and making better
decisions are just a few of the things with which psychology can help.
If You Have a Problem, There's Probably a Psychologist Who Can Help
There are many different types of psychologists; each one focused on solving different types of problems in the world. For
example, if your child is experiencing problems at school, you might seek advice from a school psychologist who specializes
in helping kids deal with academic, social, emotional, and other issues. If you are concerned about an elderly parent or
grandparent, you might want to consult with a developmental psychologist who is specially trained and knowledgeable in
issues related to the aging process.
In order to determine which professional is right for your needs, it helps to understand some of the different training and
licensing requirements for different specialty areas. If you are trying to select a psychotherapist, it may also be helpful to
learn more about which professionals are able to provide therapy services.
If you are thinking about majoring in psychology, then you should be pleased to discover that there are many career paths
to choose from. Different career options depend largely on your
Introduction
educational level and work experience, so it is important to research the required training and licensing requirements of
your chosen specialty area. Just a few of the possible career options include clinical psychology, health
psychology, forensic psychology, and industrial-organizational psychology.
Psychologists Focus On Making Human Lives Better
Among the major goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and improve human behavior. Some psychologists
accomplish this by contributing to our basic understanding of how people think, feel, and behave. Other psychologists
work in applied settings to solve real-world problems that have an impact on everyday life.
And finally, many psychologists devote their lives to helping people who are struggling with psychological issues. You may
find these professionals working in hospitals, mental health clinics, private practices, and other settings to diagnose
psychological disorders and provide psychotherapy to people from all walks of life.
While the work of psychologists may be highly varied, they all share one overriding goal: to help people live better lives.
CH2: Positive psychology
:
Positive psychology
Positive psychology
Positive psychology is the scientific study of the "good life", or the positive aspects of the human experience that make life
worth living. The discipline of positive psychology focuses on both individual and societal well-being.
Positive psychology began as a new domain of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his
term as president of the American Psychological Association. It is a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism,
which have focused on "mental illness", meanwhile emphasising maladaptive behavior and negative thinking. It builds
further on the humanistic movement, which encouraged an emphasis on happiness, well-being, and positivity, thus
creating the foundation for what is now known as positive psychology.
Positive psychology is concerned with eudemonia, "The good life", reflection about what holds the greatest value in life –
the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life.
Positive psychologists have suggested a number of ways in which individual happiness may be fostered. Social ties with a
spouse, family, friends and wider networks through work, clubs or social organisations are of particular importance, while
physical exercise and the practice of meditation may also contribute to happiness. Happiness may rise with increasing
financial income, though it may plateau or even fall when no further gains are made
Definition and basic assumptions
Definition
Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi define positive psychology as "... the scientific study of positive human
functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and
global dimensions of life."
Positive psychology
Basic concepts
Positive psychology is concerned with eudemonia, "the good life" or flourishing, living according to what holds the greatest
value in life – the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life. While not attempting a strict definition
of the good life, positive psychologists agree that one must live a happy, engaged, and meaningful life in order to
experience "the good life". Martin Seligman referred to "the good life" as "using your signature strengths every day to
produce authentic happiness and abundant gratification".
Positive psychology complements, without intending to replace or ignore, the traditional areas of psychology. By
emphasizing the study of positive human development this field helps to balance other approaches that focus on disorder,
and which may produce only limited understanding. Positive psychology has also placed a significant emphasis on fostering
positive self-esteem and self-image, though positive psychologists with a less humanist bent are less likely to focus as
intently on the matter.
The basic premise of positive psychology is that human beings are often drawn by the future more than they are driven by
the past. A change in our orientation to time can dramatically affect how we think about the nature of happiness. Seligman
identified other possible goals: families and schools that allow children to grow, workplaces that aim for satisfaction and
high productivity, and teaching others about positive psychology.
Those who practice positive psychology attempt psychological interventions that foster positive attitudes toward one's
subjective experiences, individual traits, and life events. The
Positive psychology
goal is to minimize pathological thoughts that may arise in a hopeless mindset, and to, instead, develop a sense of
optimism toward life. Positive psychologists seek to encourage acceptance of one's past, excitement and optimism about
one's future experiences, and a sense of contentment and well-being in the present.
Related concepts are happiness, well-being, quality of life contentment, and meaningful life.
Research topics
According to Seligman and Peterson, positive psychology is concerned with three issues: positive emotions, positive
individual traits, and positive institutions. Positive emotions are concerned with being content with one's past, being
happy in the present and having hope for the future. Positive individual traits focus on one's strengths and virtues. Finally,
positive institutions are based on strengths to better a community of people.
According to Peterson, positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: (1) positive experiences, (2) enduring
psychological traits, (3) positive relationships, and (4) positive institutions. According to Peterson, topics of interest
to researchers in the field are: states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these
can be promoted by social systems and institutions.
CH3: HAPPINESS :
Happiness
Important concepts:
There are several concepts are related to the concept of happiness, including:
Wellbeing:
The concept of wellbeing is used in some studies as a synonym of happiness. Wellbeing includes positive emotions and
health and flourishing. It also includes reaching the best performance on an individual and group level, whether in
negative or positive circumstances. Man always seeks to have a decent life in the present and in the future. (Wong, 2011)
It also signifies the ability to adapt to surrounding conditions. (Cohn, et al. 2009) There are five dimensions of feelings of
wellbeing: pleasure, satisfaction, tranquility, passion, and vitality. (Rego, & Pina e Cunh, 2009)
Full Life:
Seligman also used the term full life to describe a happy life: it is all about seeking enjoyment and meaning in life and
engaging in desirable activities at the same time. (Lambert, 2012)
Pleasure:
It comes from physical enjoyment that depends on the five senses in addition to movement of the body. But the effect of
this pleasure gradually decreases until it disappears after a period of time as a result of habituation. Then, the dose of
stimulation needs to be increased in order for the individual to obtain the same amount of enjoyment. (Seligman, 2002)
Happiness
Higher Pleasure:
Higher pleasure has a cognitive content more than physical pleasure does, and its sources are more numerous than physical
pleasure. However, it resembles physical pleasure as it is accompanied by positive feelings that fades away gradually with the
passage of time habituation. An individual obtains this type of happiness after using his personal abilities and skills that distinguish
him in achieving noble goals. (Seligman, 2002)
Definition of happiness:
Happiness can be defined as a personal experience that an individual feels within him and consists of three separate components:
high positive emotions, low negative feelings, and seeing life as satisfying and fulfilling. (Diener, 2000) This definition is considered
the most common in happiness studies.
Feelings are not hidden, they appear in body language, and any person, even a non-specialist, can notice them. It is an indicator of
what is actually happening in an individual's life. (Seligman, 2002) We are interested in here with a special focus on happiness.
Happiness does not mean just positive feelings, but also wellbeing and the good life in general, which makes the individual
behaves successfully in his environment and works on the progress of mankind. The person here is driven by the values ​that
appreciates meaningful work and success in human relationships, using the best environmental and personal available conditions.
(Jayawickreme, Forgeard, & Seligman, 2012) Happiness here helps individuals overcome life difficulties and have resilience.
Happiness in the present moment includes: happiness about the past events and happiness with what we expect in the future.
The current happiness is divided into pleasure and high pleasure. (Seligman, 2002)
Happiness
How to increase happiness:
Many students in the field of happiness science have developed several useful approaches, and one of the most important
scholars is Martin Seligman, the founder of positive psychology. His research aims to help 51% of the world's population to
feel happy and prosperous in the year 2051. Several methods have been developed to assist in this process and have
proven successful. It avoids the traditional, costly, and time-consuming negativity of individual psychotherapy. This new
branch of science has been called Self-Help. Although many of those involved in the development of this field are not
specialists, some scientists provide scientific research. The goal here is to make the individual see his life happy and to
actually increase these feelings and reduce negative feelings by adopting some behaviors that studies have proven
successful. (Schueller, & Parks, 2014) These techniques include behavioral activities, such as increasing positive social
interaction. They also include cognitive activities such as focusing on the details of the present time. The third kind of
technique has to do with self-leadership such as planning and setting goals. (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005) The
goal here is to increase positive feelings, behaviors, and knowledge. (Schueller, & Parks, 2014)
The following is a summary of the most important methods that psychological and social studies have found regarding
happiness:
Happiness
1) Make good social relationships:
Positive relationships with others are among the most important methods that increase happiness. (Jayawickreme,
Forgeard, & Seligman, 2012) Sharing other peoples joy is a joy in itself (Schueller, & Parks, 2014) Treating them kindly is
very useful in this field too. (Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011) The contact between individuals plays an important role in
increasing social bonds, as it reduces stress, anxiety and depression and increases psychological resilience. It even activates
the part responsible for giving a reward in the cerebral cortex in the brain. It also deepens human relationships, makes
them more intimate, and increases the level of trust. Furthermore, it increases the feeling of confidence and security. It
increases the secretion of the hormone oxytocin, which is known to be related to happiness, as we mentioned. There is a
type of touch therapy, such as massage, which is proven to be effective. (Keltner, 2010) The feeling of loneliness for long
periods of time can reduce the motivation to do physical activity, and this has a harmful physical and psychological effect
and accelerates death in the elderly. On the contrary, positive feelings can reduce these damages. (Newall, et al., 2013)
Happiness
2) Helping others:
Helping others and having compassion for them is considered one of the most important means of finding good
relationships with others. (King, 2012) Some studies have proven that buying things and giving them to others as aid
increases a person's happiness more than buying these things for oneself. (Aknin, et al., 2013)
Human cooperation is a natural and important process for preserving life, and we are moving towards more cooperation
between humans. (Smith & Dixon, 2009) This confirms Young’s theory about the collective unconsciousness. (Diener, et al.
2010) There is a subconscious part of every individual who realizes the importance of the individual's attachment to his
surroundings and the extent of his interaction with it.
Our bodies and our nervous systems in particular are designed to share others’ feelings as soon as they are seen or heard.
That is why we automatically desire to lift the suffering of anyone we see in distress. Helping others get rid of any harm or
negative feelings has a hormonal reward that occurs in the brain. In fact, when we see a person fulfills his need, we feel
happy as if we are in his place. Feeling compassion for others is also accompanied by changes in the autonomic nervous
system, where the heart rate decreases. Behaviors that show compassion for others are accompanied by an increase in the
production of the hormone oxytocin, which in turn increases our compassionate behaviors and increases happiness. Using
touch also plays a big role in communicating good feelings and support to others. (Keltner, 2004) Buchanan and Bardi
concluded that helping others increases happiness and satisfaction with life, especially if it happens regularly
Happiness
(Buchanan, & Bardi, 2010) This was confirmed in subsequent studies where happiness increased significantly among the
subjects after performing five charitable work to help others in one day for six consecutive weeks. Doing these charitable
works in one day was better than doing them on separate days throughout the week, because that makes it easier to the
individual to remember. The reason behind that is these actions improve self-image, provide a more positive image of
social interaction, and increase positive social attitudes for a person. Innovation in these works is required in order not to
turn into a boring routine. (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005)
Experiences have shown that children tend to help others innately, even before they are taught to do so. These acts
increases their happiness more than they receive help from others. (Fuhrmann, 2012) Scientists believe that providing help
to others increases the endorphins hormone in the blood, which increases the level of happiness. It also increases the
hormone oxytocin, which is responsible for feeling the warmth of social relationships. Other benefits of providing help to
others is building good social relationships with them, feeling social support, and reducing anxiety. (Suttie, & Marsh, 2010)
Charity is contagious, and this supports the assumption that we help others in order to find someone to help us in times of
need. (Fowler, & Christakis, 2010) In order for these acts to really increase your happiness, it is required that you do them
by choice, and to have a relationship with the people you are helping to be able to see the good effect of your aid on
others. (Dunn, & Norton, 2013)
Happiness
3) Forgiveness:
Thinking for long periods of events or people who have offended us increases aggression, anger and tension, and it also
makes the process of forgiveness and reconciliation with these people difficult. But if we do decide to forgive, this negative
kind of thinking will reduce. Thinking about these people increases psychological distress and tension, but tolerance
increases positive feelings and improves social relationships, and it even improves physical and psychological health.
(Worthington, 2004) Studies have found that training on forgiving others, reduced symptoms of depression by 40%.
Forgiveness also reduces emotional distress, blood pressure and anger, and increases optimism, hope, compassion, and
vitality. (Luskin, 2004)
4) Healthy childhood:
A balanced childhood full of love is one of the most important factors that can predict a happy life. (Dunn, 2013;
Martikainen, 2010) For adolescents, good friendships and positive social interaction contribute a lot to their happiness.
(Demir, 2004) In general, family social support has been shown to be associated with happiness, as measured by being
friendly and helping each other, expressing feelings, and having less conflict,. (North, et al., 2008)
5) Positive thinking:
Seligman concluded in his studies that increasing awareness of positive things and using character strengths in doing
something useful would raise the level of happiness. It was also found that these activities helped sustaing positive feelings
for a long time. (Seligman, et al., 2005; Castro, 2013; Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011) To facilitate this process, the
Happiness
individual can keep a notebook in which he writes the blessings and the positives he encounters in his daily life. (King,
2012)
6) Healthy environment:
There are a number of conditions that must be met in the surrounding environment in order for the individual to feel
happy, including the presence of close people who can be relied upon, freedom, distance from corruption, generosity,
peace, and the spread of values ​and ethics. This environment should also be characterized by economic abundance,. This,
in turn, affects an individual's assessment of his circumstances and his mental and physical health. (Helliwell, Layard, &
Sachs, 2013)
7) Money:
The availability of money allows the individual to be able to buy things he wants and this also makes him happy, especially
if the buying experience is enjoyable. (Nicolao, 2009) Also, money enables an individual to buy things and give them to
others as assistance, and this increases a person's happiness more than buying these things for himself (Aknin, et al.,
2013). Having money contributes to raising an individual's self-evaluation and increasing his sense of satisfaction with his
life, but it does not guarantee continuous positive emotions. (Diener, et al., 2010) Studies have found that raising the
income of poor families can dramatically raise their sense of happiness because it will help them meet their basic needs,
but the increase in income after that and the opportunity to buy luxury goods will not have the same effect. (North, et al.,
2008) Money contributes positively here if it enables a person to move to desired homes, neighborhoods, or workplaces.
(Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011)
Happiness
8) Thankfulness:
Thanksgiving to the Creator or to those who help us increases happiness. (Seligman, et al., 2005; Castro, 2013;
Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011; King, 2012) Thanks directs our view that there are those who work for our comfort and provide
for our needs, which is a reassuring idea. The thanked person is pleased with this process, so, this leads him/her repeat his
good efforts. It is useful here to provide thanks and appreciation in the form of written letters because this increases their
positive impact, and shows to the one who writes that there are many positives in his life. (Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011) This
includes feelings of gratitude to our Creator and the acts we do as a form of gratitude. (Schueller, & Parks, 2014) Research
has shown that a grateful person experience increase in his happiness and satisfaction with his life and optimism, improves
his social relationship, increases his ability to solve problems and improves his sleep. This may be because the person who
is thankful believes that there is good in this world and deserves to live in it. He implicitly says that he wishes good for the
person being thanked. (Emmons, 2007) Moreover, thanksgiving helps the individual to enjoy good things in the present
moment, prevents negative thoughts and feelings that accompany them such as envy and regret, contributes to healing
from psychological distress, and increases self-esteem. (Emmons, 2010)
9) Good breathing:
There is a link between good breathing and wellbing in general. Controlling breathing contributes to this, as slow and deep
breaths reduce stress and anxiety. (Homma & Akai, 2010)
Happiness
10) Meaningful life:
Having a meaningful life that can please the individual. (Jayawickreme, Forgeard, & Seligman, 2012) This meaning makes
him/her endure the difficulties and bad feelings to achieve the goals and raise self-esteem and self-actualizatio. This
contributes to the creation of the higher kind of happines that does not depend on physical pleasures.
11) Self-acceptance, independence and self-reliance:
(Jayawickreme, Forgeard, & Seligman, 2012) Conflicts within oneself are among the most important and influential
enemies of happiness. Self-acceptance training and development are now available to many people who want to make
positive changes in there lives.
12) Meditation:
This is an activity that aims to control the body and mind through intended attention to specific things. It reduces internal
psychological dialogue and contributes to self-acceptance and the desire to communicate with the surrounding
environment. Studies in neuroscience have found that meditation increases the activity of positive emotion areas in the
brain. (Dambrun, & Ricard, 2011) It helps get rid of negative emotions and increases desire in life. This is because it
contributes to avoiding negative thoughts, anxiety about the future, and regret about the past, and it replaces that by
focusing on the present moment. (Arch, & Craske, 2006) There is a successful method that involves the individual
imagining himself living in the best conditions he desires and describing it by writing and expressing the decent life that he
can live. (Lyumbomirsky, et al., 2011)
CH4: WILLPOWER :
Willpower
Meaning of willpower:
Willpower means the determination to choose between several alternatives, and control the mind and body in order to do
what the individual wants, even if it is difficult, without anyone forcing him to do so. This action may be in the form of
physical movement, mental processes, or prevention of certain behavior. This indicates the independence of the individual
and his freedom of choice, and reflects his psychological health and his ability to prevent himself from performing certain
behaviors, and self-strength. This behavior is preceded by mental imaginations, planning and anticipation of the results,
and the achievement of goals is followed by a positive feeling. The strong-willed person prefers future gains over current
ones and is flexible in implementing his actions. Sometime it is referred to this term as volition.
Willpower
Strengthen your willpower:
The strengthening willpower is possible; it begins with the decision that the individual takes to perform a certain behavior
no matter how much it costs. The following activates were proven to be very effective in improving willpower.
1) Appropriate feelings:
Set goals that are, to some extent, difficult to achieve so that you continues to strive for reaching happiness that
accompany achieving the goals.
2) Positive affirmation:
Repeat some positive sentences about your good traits and skills to raise self-esteem and to remind yourself that you can
achieve better goals. It will make it easier to convince yourself to put more effort in this matter. (Taylor & Sherman, 2008)
3) Motivation boost:
Remind yourself with the bas consequences that would happen if you don’t reach your goal, the rewards that you might
get at the end, the good feelings that you got in the past when you did a similar activity, or the competitors and how they
would be better than you.
4) Self-knowledge:
Observing the individual's patterns of behavior associated with different situations can also be an important source of self-
knowledge and weaknesses, which enables him to overcome any obstacles.
5) Give gifts to yourself:
Giving yourself a gift after achieving a goal can make it obey you.
Willpower
6) Get rid of negative habits:
Change your bad habits by changing your beliefs, concepts and people related to them.
7) Priming:
The thinking pattern and the information content that a person generates affects the behavior he performs at this
moment. Make positive priming for yourself by repeating certain sentences and evoking associated concepts and words, or
by viewing images suggestive of a certain behavior or seeing people performing that behavior.
8) Awareness of goals:
Remind yourself with the goals that you are working to accomplish at this moment. That will enable you to control and
manage your behavior well.
9) Start with small goals:
Divide your big goals into small ones, and start with achieving simple goals. That will raise your happiness level and
motivate you to continue your efforts to reach the bigger goals.
10) Avoid short-term goals:
To avoid satisfying short-term desires at the expense of long-term goals, the individual needs a lot of voluntary control
over automatic responses, thoughts and feelings. A short-term goal is like having the pleasure of eating sweets, but the
long-term goal here is preserving good health. Therefore, always watch your feeling and need, and satisfy them to avoid
their control.
Willpower
11) Goals are contagious:
When a person is in the same place with a group of people who seek to achieve a specific goal, he automatically tends to
pursue the same goal. This is due to the fact that goals are contagious. (Decety & Sommerville, 2009) So, do not stay with
people that you do not approve their behavior.
CH5: LEARNING :
Learning
Definitions of Learning

1. “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to
processes of growth.”
2. “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience. This definition
has three components:
1) the duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term;
2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner; The
cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical condition or physiologic intervention.”
3. “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that—when internalized and mixed with
what we have experienced—changes what we know and builds on what we do. It’s based on input, process, and
reflection. It is what changes us.”
Learning
Factors affecting learning
1- Heredity: A classroom instructor can neither change nor increase heredity, but the student can use and develop it. Some
learners are rich in hereditary endowment while others are poor. Each student is unique and has different abilities. The
native intelligence is different in individuals. Heredity governs or conditions our ability to learn and the rate of learning.
The intelligent learners can establish and see relationships very easily and more quickly.
2-Status of students: Physical and home conditions also matter: Certain problems like malnutrition i.e.; inadequate supply
of nutrients to the body, fatigue i.e.; tiredness, bodily weakness, and bad health are great obstructers in learning. These
are some of the physical conditions by which a student can get affected. Home is a place where a family lives. If the
home conditions are not proper, the student is affected seriously. Some of the home conditions are bad ventilation,
unhygienic living, bad light, etc. These affect the student and his or her rate of learning.
3- Physical environment: The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school or classroom, can each be
critical to the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics,
furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how
information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital
technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture
arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are
limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student
morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.
Learning
4-Goals or purposes: Each and everyone has a goal. A goal should be set to each pupil according to the standard expected
to him. A goal is an aim or desired result. There are 2 types of goals called immediate and distant goals. A goal that
occurs or is done at once is called an immediate goal, and distant goals are those that take time to achieve. Immediate
goals should be set before the young learner and distant goals for older learners. Goals should be specific and clear, so
that learners understand.
5-Motivational behavior: Motivation means to provide with a motive. Motivation learners should be motivated so that
they stimulate themselves with interest. This behavior arouses and regulates the student's internal energies.
6-Interest: This is a quality that arouses a feeling. It encourages a student to move over tasks further. During teaching, the
instructor must raise interests among students for the best learning. Interest is apparent (clearly seen or understood)
behavior.
7-Attention: Attention means consideration. It is concentration or focusing of consciousness upon one object or an idea. If
effective learning should take place attention is essential. Instructors must secure the attention of the student.
8-Drill or practice: This method includes repeating the tasks "n" number of times like needs, phrases, principles, etc. This
makes learning more effective.
9-Fatigue: Generally there are three types of fatigue, i.e., muscular, sensory, and mental. Muscular and sensory fatigues are
bodily fatigue. Mental fatigue is in the central nervous system. The remedy is to change teaching methods, e.g., use
audio-visual aids, etc.
Learning
10-Aptitude: Aptitude is natural ability. It is a condition in which an individual's ability to acquire certain skills, knowledge
through training.
11-Attitude: It is a way of thinking. The attitude of the student must be tested to find out how much inclination he or she
has for learning a subject or topic.
12-Emotional conditions: Emotions are physiological states of being. Students who answer a question properly or give
good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results.
Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of
a class are counterproductive.
13-Speed, Accuracy and retention: Speed is the rapidity of movement. Retention is the act of retaining. These 3 elements
depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, and motivation of the students.
14-Learning activities: Learning depends upon the activities and experiences provided by the teacher, his concept of
discipline, methods of teaching, and above all his overall personality.
15-Testing: Various tests measure individual learner differences at the heart of effective learning. Testing helps eliminate
subjective elements of measuring pupil differences and performances.
16-Guidance: Everyone needs guidance in some part or some time in life. Some need it constantly and some very rarely
depending on the students' conditions. Small learners need more guidance. Guidance is a piece of advice to solve a
problem. Guidance involves the art of helping boys and girls in various aspects of academics, improving vocational
aspects like choosing careers and recreational aspects like choosing hobbies. Guidance covers the whole gamut of
learners problems- learning as well as non-learning.
CH6: SOME COGNITIVE
PROCESSES RELATED TO
LEARNING
1 MEMORY
Memory
Memory
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism that occur as a result of experience and is often pressed in overt
behavior. Memory is the ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills. Memory is
also the storage system that allows the person to retain and retrieve previously learned information. Learning and memory
are two facts of the process of acquiring of information, storing it, and using it. The acquisition part is learning, and the
storage and accessing of learned information comprise memory.
What are the types of memory storage?
Storage is the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available. It also refers to the locations where
information is held, which researchers call memory stores. The duration of storage may be few seconds or many years.
There are three-stage model for memory storage:
1-sensory memory.
2-Short-term storage.
3-Long term memory.
Each type of storage has different characteristics and limits.
Memory
Sensory memory
Sometimes called the sensory register, is the mechanism that performs initial encoding of sensory stimuli and provides
brief storage of them. When you hear a song, see a photograph, or touch a piece of silk, sensory memory starts. Sensory
memory captures a visual, auditory, tactile, or chemical stimulus (such as an odor) in a form the brain can interpret. This
visual sensory representation is sometimes called an icon, and the storage mechanism is called icon storage. For the
auditory system, the storage mechanism is called echoic storage.
Sensory memory lasts very briefly, for example, when you locate a phone number or phone book page, the number is
established in your visual sensory memory (in iconic storage), but unless you quickly transfer it to short-term storage by
repeating it over and over to yourself, writing it down you will forget it .
Short -term storage
This relates to the ability to retain information just long enough to use it. Typically it is the memory involved in retaining a
telephone number just long enough to dial it after looking it up in a directory. Short-term memory contains material which
needs to be kept in store for not longer than 30 seconds as opposed to long-term memory.
Memory span
It's the amount of material that can be stored in the shortterm memory at any one time. Once material has been selected
by means of the immediate memory processes (the iconic or echoic memories) it passes into short-term memory. The
capacity of this store is limited to seen, plus or minus two items.
Memory
Duration of short-term memory
Unless it is possible to rehearse material to be recalled, it will very quickly be forgotten.
The trace decay theory of forgetting
It was found that recall was higher after short intervals such as 3 or 6 seconds, but by 18 seconds' interval participants
were recalling only about 10% correctly. They suggested that the duration of short-term memory was only about 6 to 12
seconds if unrehearsed.
Long-term storage
This relates to the ability to retain information over almost indefinite periods of time. While it is possible to characterize
short-term memory in terms of its duration and its capacity, it is much more difficult to do this for long-term memory.
There seem to be known limits to the duration or to the capacity of long-term memory storage. It is important that
semantic connections (that is to say, understanding of meaning) are involved in the process of coding for long-term
memory. There is great diversity, not only in what is stored- all kinds of knowledge and beliefs, objects and events, people
and places, plans and skills but also how it is stored.
Some of the factors involved in organization and retrieval in long term memory, including distinctions between episodic
and semantic memory, interference effects and the ways in which it seems that materials is organized within our memory
systems.
 (2)
PERCEPTION
Perception
What Is Perception?
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception, a set of
senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required
to process information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.
Learn more about how we go from detecting stimuli in the environment to actually taking action based on that information.
Types of Perception
Some of the main types of perception include:
• Vision
• Touch
• Sound
• Taste
• Smell
There are also other senses that allow us to perceive things such as balance, time, body position, acceleration, and the perception
of internal states. Many of these are multimodal and involve more than one sensory modality. Social perception, or the ability to
identify and use social cues about people and relationships, is another important type of perception.
How It Works
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our perception of a stimulus and
action in response to the stimulus. It occurs continuously, but you do not spend a great deal of time thinking about the
actual process that occurs when you perceive the many stimuli that surround you at any given moment.
Perception

For example, the process of transforming the light that falls on your retinas into an actual visual image happens
unconsciously and automatically. The subtle changes in pressure against your skin that allow you to feel objects occur
without a single thought.
Perception acts as a filter that allows us to exist and interpret the world without becoming overwhelmed by the
abundance of stimuli.
 (3)
ATTENTION
Attention
Definition of Attention
Right now, as you watch this video, you are exercising your attention. Attention is a topic that has been studied often by cognitive
psychologists. It refers to focusing and processing information from our surroundings. While it involves our tending to facets of our
environment, the nature of our attention can vary from event to event. There are four main types of attention that we use in our
daily lives: selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention, and executive attention.
Types of Attention
Selective attention
Have you ever been at a loud concert or a busy restaurant, and you are trying to listen to the person you are with? While it can be
hard to hear every word, you can usually pick up most of the conversation if you're trying hard enough. This is because you are
choosing to focus on this one person's voice, as opposed to say, the people speaking around you. Selective attention takes place
when we block out certain features of our environment and focus on one particular feature, like the conversation you are having
with your friend.
Divided attention
Do you ever do two things at once? If you're like most people, you do that a lot. Maybe you talk to a friend on the phone while
you're straightening up the house. Nowadays, there are people everywhere texting on their phones while they're spending time
with someone. When we are paying attention to two things at once, we are using divided attention.
Some instances of divided attention are easier to manage than others. For example, straightening up the home while talking on
the phone may not be hard if there's not much of a mess to focus on. Texting while you are trying to talk to someone in front of
you, however, is much more difficult. Both age and the degree to which you are accustomed to dividing your attention make a
difference in how adept at it you are.
Attention
Sustained attention
Are you someone who can work at one task for a long time? If you are, you are good at using sustained attention. This happens
when we can concentrate on a task, event, or feature in our environment for a prolonged period of time. Think about people you
have watched who spend a lot of time working on a project, like painting or even listening intently to another share their story.
Sustained attention is also commonly referred to as one's attention span. It takes place when we can continually focus on one
thing happening, rather than losing focus and having to keep bringing it back. People can get better at sustained attention as they
practice it.
Executive attention
Do you feel able to focus intently enough to create goals and monitor your progress? If you are inclined to do these things, you are
displaying executive attention. Executive attention is particularly good at blocking out unimportant features of the environment
and attending to what really matters. It is the attention we use when we are making steps toward a particular end.
For example, maybe you need to finish a research project by the end of the day. You might start by making a plan, or you might
jump into it and attack different parts of it as they come. You keep track of what you've done, what more you have to do, and how
you are progressing. You are focusing on these things in order to reach the goal of a finished research paper. That is using your
executive attention.
Attention Changes in Life
Researchers have studied how attention changes over our lifetime, especially our sustained attention. Lucy is five years old. Her
mother puts Barney on the television for her while she makes lunch in the kitchen. Her mother hopes that Lucy will stay
interested and seated long enough for her to finish up. But as usual, Lucy is not able to stay focused for more than 15 minutes. At
first, she was mesmerized with the show, but then she loses interest and comes over to tug at her mom.
 HOW TO IMPROVE
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Eight Habits That Improve Cognitive Functions
Eight Habits That Improve Cognitive Function
What daily habits improve brain structure and cognitive function?
1. Physical Activity
researchers at Boston University School of Medicine discovered more evidence that physical activity is beneficial for brain health
and cognition. The study found that certain hormones, which are increased during exercise, may help improve memory. The
researchers were able to correlate blood hormone levels from aerobic fitness and identify positive effects on memory function
linked to exercise.
2. Openness to Experience
A 2013 study, "The Impact of Sustained Engagement on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: The Synapse Project," found that
learning new and demanding skills while maintaining an engaged social network are key to staying sharp as we age.
3. Curiosity and Creativity
A 2013 study from Michigan State found that childhood participation in arts and crafts leads to innovation, patents, and increases
the odds of starting a business as an adult. The researchers found that people who own businesses or patents received up to eight
times more exposure to the arts as children than the general public.
4. Social Connections
In 2014, John Cacioppo of the University of Chicago presented findings which identified that the health consequences of
feeling lonely can trigger psychological and cognitive decline.
Cacioppo's research found that feeling isolated from others can disrupt sleep, elevate blood pressure, increase morning rises in
the stress hormone cortisol, alter gene expression in immune cells, increase depression, and lower overall subjective well-being.
All of these factors conspire to disrupt optimal brain function and connectivity, and reduce cognitive function.
Eight Habits That Improve Cognitive Functions
5. Mindfulness Meditation
A 2013 pilot study by researchers at Harvard's Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center identifed that the brain changes
associated with meditation and subsequent stress reduction may play an important role in slowing the progression of age-
related cognitive disorders like Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.
6. Brain-Training Games
Scientists are beginning to better understand the specific mechanisms of how patterns of electrical pulses (called “spikes”)
trigger a cascade of changes in neural circuits linked to learning and memory. In a 2013 report, Tel Aviv University
researchers found that "stimulant-rich" environments and problem-solving puzzles could be contributing factors in
preventing or delaying the onset of Alzheimer’s disease in some people.
7. Get Enough Sleep
Scientists have known for decades that the brain requires sleep to consolidate learning and memory.
8. Reduce Chronic Stress
Neuroscientists have discovered that chronic stress and high levels of cortisol can damage the brain. A wide range of
recent studies have affirmed the importance of maintaining healthy brain structure and connectivity by reducing chronic
stress, which lowers cortisol.