Lec 34: Taylor’s Theorem

MATH 147 Section 2, Fall Term 2022

I Taylor’s Theorem
I Taylor’s Approximation Theorem

Key references: Text book section 6.4 presents similar results but refers to MATH 148 tools (integration and
power series).
A more appropriate reference for now is section 7.12 from the text book by Thomson et al.
Taylor’s Theorem

Theorem (Taylor’s Theorem)

Let I be an interval containing the point c and let f be (n + 1) times differentiable on I for some integer n ≥ 0.
Then, for each x ∈ I \ {c}, there exists a point ξ between c and x such that the Taylor remainder satisfies

f (n+1) (ξ)
Rn,c (x) = (x − c)n+1 .
(n + 1)!

Remarks:
1. The remainder looks like the next Taylor polynomial term but the coefficient uses a derivative evaluated at
a different point.
2. Generalizes MVT.
3. Powerful but unfortunately does not tell us how to find ξ.
4. Still, suggests a method for finding an upper bound for the error.

Question
Is this theorem saying that the Taylor remainder is a polynomial?
Proof of Taylor’s Theorem
Consider an arbitrary, but fixed, x0 ∈ I with x0 > c. The case with x0 < c is the same except for swapping end
points of intervals when we apply Rolle’s Theorem.
f (x0 )−Tn,c (x0 )
Define M = (x0 −c)n+1
so that Rn,c (x0 ) = f (x0 ) − Tn,c (x0 ) = M(x0 − c)n+1 .

Consider the function g (x) = f (x) − Tn,c (x) − M(x − c)n+1 .

Note that g (c) = 0 and g (x0 ) = 0.
Differentiating (n + 1) times, we have: g (n+1) (x) = f (n+1) (x) − M(n + 1)!
Moreover, the kth derivatives at x = c are g (k) (c) = 0 for 0 ≤ k ≤ n.
We now iteratively apply Rolle’s Theorem.
There exists ξ1 ∈ (c, x0 ) such that g 0 (ξ1 ) = 0.
Hence, there exists ξ2 ∈ (c, ξ1 ) such that g 00 (ξ2 ) = 0.
Hence, ...
Hence, there exists ξn+1 ∈ (c, ξn ) such that g (n+1) (ξn+1 ) = 0.
But, this means that f (n+1) (ξn+1 ) = M(n + 1)!. Therefore,

f (n+1) (ξn+1 )
Rn,c (x0 ) = (x − c)n+1 .
(n + 1)!
Taylor’s Approximation Theorem

Theorem (Taylor’s Approximation Theorem)

Let [a, b] be a closed bounded interval containing a point c. If f is a function such that f (n+1) is continuous on
[a, b] for some integer n ≥ 0, then there exists M > 0 such that the Taylor remainder satisfies

|Rn,c (x)| ≤ M|x − c|n+1

for all x ∈ [a, b].

K
In particular, if |f (n+1) (x)| ≤ K for all x ∈ [a, b], then M = (n+1)!
satisfies the property above.
Exercise

Exercise
Use Taylor’s Theorem / Taylor’s Approximation Theorem to find an error bound for the approximation
sin(0.1) ≈ 0.1.
Examples

Consider the function f (x) = 3x 3 − x + 5, from an earlier exercise. Find an error bound for:
1. the Taylor remainder R1,0 (0.5).
2. the Taylor remainder function R2,0 (x) on the interval [−2, 2].

1. This question is about the 1st order (n = 1) remainder so we need the second derivative, which we have
already determined to be f 00 (x) = 18x. If we consider the interval I = [0, 0.5] (since this interval contains
a = 0 and x = 0.5), then we can easily see that |f 00 (x)| ≤ K = 9 for all x ∈ I . By Taylor’s Approximation
Theorem, we must have that
9 9
|R1,0 (0.5)| ≤ |0.5 − 0|(1+1) = .
2! 8
(Check what the actual error is for comparison.)
2. We have already found that f (3) (x) = 18 for all x, so we will use K = 18 over the interval I = [−2, 2]
specified in the question. Taylor’s Approximation Theorem gives:
18
|R2,0 (x)| ≤ |x − 0|2+1 = 3|x|3 .
3!
Note: Don’t forget the absolute value on the x and on R2,0 (x)! Also, remember the theorem gives you an
inequality, not an equation for R.