OS Setting

and
Curriculum
Planning

COURSE MODULE

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 Table of Contents
Contents Page

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO OCCUPATIONAL/VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.......................1

Lesson 1: Definition of Terms..............................................................................2
Lesson 2: Concepts of Vocational & Technical Education................................4
Lesson 3: Functions of Vocational Education and Training..............................7
Lesson 4: Objectives of Vocational Education.................................................13
Lesson 5: Modern Principles of Vocational Education....................................16
Lesson 6: Characteristics of Vocational Education.........................................20
Lesson 7: Foundations of Vocational Education..............................................22
Lesson 8: Historical Development of Vocational Education...........................27
UNIT 2: OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION....................................................................39
Lesson 9: Meaning and Benefits of Outcome-Based Training........................40
Lesson 10: The Basic Principles and Characteristics of OBT.........................44
Lesson 11: Components and steps in the process of OBT.............................47
UNIT 3: FORMULATION OF OS AND CURRICULUM PLANNING........................................55
Lesson 12: Vocational Education and the Labor Market.................................56
Lesson 13: Occupational Standards..................................................................66
Lesson 14: Occupation Development and Occupational Profile in TVET......72
Lesson 15: Modular Approach to Curriculum Development...........................84
References........................................................................................................... 92

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Workbook
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO
OCCUPATIONAL/VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION
About this unit

This unit focuses on the essence of Technical and Vocational Education and consists of eight
sections:

1. Definition of Terms in TVET.

2. Concepts of Vocational & Technical Education

3. Functions of Vocational Education and Training

4. Objectives of Vocational Education

5. Principles of Vocational Education

6. Features of Vocational Education

7. Foundations of Vocational Education

8. Historical Development of Vocational Education

Unit Learning objectives

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Define important terms and concepts in TVET

 Analyze the functions and objectives of technical and Vocational education and training
 Apply the principles of vocational training in your activities
 Analyze the features and foundations of TVET
 Synthesize the important lessons from the episodes of the historical development of TVET

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Introduction

To start with, vocationalism can be defined as the method used by schools, particularly by
technical and vocational schools, and TVET colleges, to organize their curricula so that the
students may develop skills, both vocational and academic, that will give them the strategic
labor-market advantages needed to compete for good jobs. Attached with it is the concept of
work-based experience, which is thought to allow students to learn first-hand experience
about the world of work while they are still in school.

Lesson 1: Definition of Terms

Activity 1

 Dear trainees try to define these terms in your own words before you go through your
readings of the notes that are presented in the unit.

1. What does vocation? Work? Job? Career? Occupation? Profession? stand for?

2. Are there differences and similarities among each of the above terms?

3. What are their differences and similarities?

4. Is it possible to take shoe polishing, office-boy, janitor, or traditional carpentry as an

occupation, a career, or a profession? Why?

An explanation of the following words and terms within the context of technical and
vocational education will enhance your understanding and appreciation of the course.

Vocation: This can be described as a job one does because he/she strongly feels that, doing
so is the purpose in his/her life. It can also be seen as a job one does to render a service or
help to others. A vocation can also refer to those work activities in which one is specially
gifted. People generally are committed to their vocations; find them intrinsically rewarding
and perform them with great autonomy and feelings of satisfaction, importance and
relevance.

Job: This refers to anything one does to earn his/her living especially if he/she works for
someone else. Jobs are task-outcomes and organization-centered.

Work: This can be defined as a regular physical or mental activity for which someone is
paid. Work can also be voluntary (when someone is not paid) or entrepreneurial (when an
individual is working for him/herself). Work is a task that must be performed, i.e. it is
obligatory. It is a kind of identity because it gives an individual a sense of purpose; affects
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his/her attitude, behavior, values, priorities, etc, and even determines the kind of people one
interacts with. Job and work are inter-related and are sometimes substituted for each other.

Occupation: An occupation is a definable work activity that occurs in various settings. It is

an individual’s main source of living - the kind of work one does on a regular basis. This
means that one’s occupation refers to the kind of work or job he/she does over a period of
time.

Profession: This refers to the kind of work or job that requires special training and education
e.g. law, accountancy, architecture, nursing, etc. Some professions such as medicine, teaching
and nursing can also be called vocations because some people do them not just to make a lot
of money but to give service to humanity as well.

Career: This can be defined as the type of work or job an individual has been trained for and
which he does or hopes to do for a long time i.e. most of his working life. It refers to the total
sequence or pattern of jobs performed throughout a person’s working life. What you have
considered so far can be summarized according to Figure 1 below.

Work Job Occupation

Means of Livelihood

Vocation Profession Career

More than mere means of Livelihood

Figure 1: Means of Livelihood

Lesson 2: Concepts of Vocational & Technical

Education
Activity 2

• Either individually and /or in groups, discuss on the following questions

1. How do you define Vocational education?

2. What is the value of vocational education to individuals, society, and to the industry?

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 3. Is the function of vocational education the same for all individuals, industry, and the
community? Why?

4. What is the ultimate purpose of vocational education?

5. Compare your discussion results with the explanations given in the section to come.
How far are you in line with it? Why?

Education prepares people for a career by teaching them the skills and knowledge they need
to succeed in their chosen field. Training prepares people for a specific job by teaching them
the skills and knowledge they need to do that job. Both are important, but for different
reasons. There are primarily three major types of education available, namely formal,
informal, and non-formal. These forms of education provide value across different areas of
development for the youth.

Formal Education-this refers to all educational programs provided within approved public
institutions.

Non-Formal Education-this is described as all types of functional education offered outside

the formal school system. It is any organized educational activity outside the established
formal system of education.

Informal Education-this is a generally unorganized process whereby every individual

acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experiences and the educative
influences and resources in his/her environment including family and neighbors, work, play,
books, library and the mass-media, etc.

Technical Education-this is the form of education which is offered at the upper secondary
level, lower tertiary institutions (e.g. polytechnic) to prepare middle level (technical and
middle manager, etc), and at the university and the HND levels to prepare, engineers,
businessmen managers and technologists for higher management positions. Technical
education includes general education, technical studies and related skills training.

Vocational and Technical Education-vocational education or technical and vocational

education is a term used comprehensively to refer to the educational process which involves,
in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, skills and
knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life.

Vocational or technical and vocational education is a term used comprehensively to refer to

the educational process to which involves, in addition to general education, the study of

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technologies and related sciences, skills and knowledge relating to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life.

Vocational education-there is no internationally accepted comprehensive definition of the

term vocational education. The different educators have defined it in different ways. For
instance, consider the following definitions.

The UNESCO convention describes vocational education and training as all forms and levels
of educational process involving, in addition to general knowledge, the study of technologies
and related sciences, the acquisition of practical skills, know-how, attitudes and
understanding relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life. For
instance, in UK, vocational education and training includes commercial, technical and
professional development as well as transferable personal skills.

Vocational education and training in most cases, refers to any formal, post-compulsory
education that develops knowledge, skills and attributes linked to particular forms of
employment, although in some interpretations this would exclude professional education. It
includes initial training and continuing professional development. In other sense, it is closely
linked with lifelong learning.

In other words, vocational education can be described as an educational program that

prepares learners for an occupation other than those that would require a baccalaureate
degree. A specific definition describes vocational education as learner preparation “for
careers or professions that are traditionally non-academic and directly related to a specific
trade, occupation, or vocation” (Wikipedia). The broader definition of vocational education,
as indicated by Evans and Herr, can be more inclusive and best represented by the objectives
set below.

The first objective of vocational education is to meet the employment needs of the society,
the second is to increase the occupational choices available to each participant of a vocational
program, and the third is to serve as a motivator that keeps people interested in all types of
education.

Evans and Herr Point out that knowledge of student objectives in relation to vocational
education are not well documented. There are obviously conflicts in these objectives; for
example, if a certain employer needs workers in certain areas, they may be more prone to fill
the vacancies with their own employees from other areas of the operation, as opposed to
going to society to fill the jobs.

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In addition to the three objectives of vocational education, the foundation and organization of
vocational education can be used to define it. In the social sciences, there are philosophical,
economic, social, and psychological foundations. The structural foundation of vocational
education requires participant development, guidance, and career counselling. Organizational
structures vary from delivery in secondary school to delivery via government or non-profit
agencies. All of these foundations, plus the three objectives, as identified by Evans and Herr,
can provide an accurate description and definition of vocational education.

Furthermore, vocational education, according to UNESCO (2002), can be considered in a

similar way that technical and vocational education is used as a comprehensive term referring
to those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the
study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes,
understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and
social life. Technical and vocational education is further understood to be:

 an integral part of general education

 a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of
work

 an aspect of lifelong learning and preparation for responsible citizenship

 an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development

 a method of facilitating poverty alleviation

Note-What is the difference or similarities between VE and TE?

Vocational education

It is concerned with instructions in skills necessary for persons who are preparing to enter the
labor force or who need training or retraining in the technology of their occupation. The
impact of technology on occupations, the tendency of employers to set higher educational
requirements, and the need for employees with specialized training have made vocational
preparation imperative. Part time programs are essential in order to provide occupational
mobility among workers and overcome the effects of job obsolescence.

Technical education

It is concerned with instruction in a skill or procedure, usually of a mechanical type, and at a

level between that of the professional scientist or engineer and that of a skilled craftsperson.

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Technicians support scientists and engineers by designing, developing, producing, and
maintaining machines and materials. The work of a technician is more limited in scope than
that of a scientist or engineer and is commonly considered practical rather than theoretical in
its orientation.

Lesson 3: Functions of Vocational Education and

Training
Activity 3

 Form a group of not more than 4 members and tackle these questions.

1. What are the major functions of Vocational Education & Training?

2. What are the functions of Vocational Education & Training for individuals, industries
and society?

The mandate of vocational education and training is manifold. First, the vocational education
and training system should deliver both foundation and specialist skills to private individuals,
enabling them to find employment or launch their own business, to work productively and
adapt to different technologies, tasks and conditions. The ultimate economic objective of
education and training is to bring about improvement in personal and social productivity (the
efficiency argument).

Second, skill training is often an instrument for structural change. Large number of workers
may have to leave jobs that are no longer in demand, move to new jobs that will be created or
learn to perform old jobs in new ways with different technologies. Training systems, along
with other agencies that provide a safety net and assistance in finding new employment, play
an important role in retaining redundant workers and help reduce the social cost of change.
Education and training systems are also increasingly involved in continuing retraining and
upgrading programmes for employers at all levels from engineer to semi-skilled workers.

Third, there is always a need to equalize the opportunities that people have to earn their living
through the acquisition of skills (the equality argument). Education and training appear to be
important factors in earning disparities. Although investing in training cannot, in itself,
equalize the income distribution, a more equal distribution of statefunded education and
training tends to affect income distribution. However, equal opportunity and equal outcome
are not synonymous, and the outcome of training opportunities is to compare public spending

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on VET per individual in various groups, such as urban and rural residents, male and female
workers, or younger and older workers (Carnoy, 1993).

Fourth, education and training can be viewed as a tool for achieving for national economic
and social objective, such as encouraging regional development and supporting priority
industrial sectors, expanding exports, attaching foreign investment and raising wages. This
policy aims to change the economic and social situation through training, with other means
used as leverage/power for this change.

Fifth, in addition to the economic benefits, education and training can generate massive social
benefits (externalities), such as crime reduction, health improvement, and better social
cohesion, which accrue to society as a whole rather than to individuals. Although these broad
externalities are very difficult to quantify, they are thought to be significant. In this regard, it
is becoming increasingly common, particularly in wealthier countries, to see VET as an
important avenue for the socialization of young people.

The rationale is that young people need vocational knowledge and skills as well as general
education. There is a recognized need for a minimum vocational qualification level for each
adult, including early school leavers, to enable him/her to function adequately in the labor
market and in society. Under such policies, the government training offer may be linked to
the job market only to a limited extent. Public VET provision becomes both student-demand-
driven and labour-market-driven, which means that the government may offer courses to all
who wish to enrol. Instead, training students for a certain number of available or forthcoming
jobs, the government may set targets for a certain rate of participation.

Sixth, training can have benefits not directly connected to employment. Vocational skills and
knowledge enable people to provide services, such as medical care or car and house
maintenance, to their families and neighbors, and to reduce their expenditure on such
services. Programs offering such useful qualifications, which reduce the cost of living, are
very popular in many countries. For many occupations, such as nursing or automobile
maintenance, the number of trainees may considerably exceed the number of existing and
forthcoming jobs with relevant skill profile.

In short, the functions of vocational education that it can be described as one of the most
viable solutions to the individual; industrial, technological, and economic; societal; and
national problems of any nation. We shall now consider the usefulness of vocational
education in relation to these beneficiaries as follows.

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Individuals

Technical and vocational skill is of vital importance for it is essential for individual
prosperity. Skills enable the individual to increase productivity and income. This is,
especially important for those who are eking out a living in the informal sector of the
economy. Furthermore, vocational education is important to individuals in the following
ways:

 It increases the number of options that is, choices of available occupational areas from
which individuals can choose.

 It boosts the earning power of individuals by ensuring that everybody profits from one form
of training or instructions or other depending on the individuals‟ abilities and aptitudes.

 It empowers individuals economically if they possess saleable and relevant skills to enable
them gain and maintain gainful employment or become self-reliant.

 It acts as a vehicle towards self-actualization.

 It makes individuals to be psychologically balanced and physically fit because work gives a
sense of identity, purpose, and value.

 It reduces idleness and tendency to crimes and other deviant behaviors.

 It helps individuals maximize their potentials, talents, and aptitudes thereby inducing in
them a sense of achievement and worth.

 It makes individuals conscious of the technical and economic implications of their activities
or in activities.

 It enables people make sensible economic decisions and contributes as producers and
consumers.

 It leads to improved standard of living, which results in healthier and longer lives.

The Society

The importance of vocational education to the society includes the following.

 It leads to practical solutions to various challenges and problems in the society owing to
technological breakthroughs and advancement.

 The society avoids being a victim of those who should help in building it. This means that
crime, deviant behavior and various societal ills become drastically reduced.

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 It helps the society to become truly free and democratic.

 It helps in building a just and egalitarian society.

 Education, which is a key social service, stands to enjoy more patronage and confidence
from the people. This is because vocational education gives meaning and value to general
education.

 It creates opportunities for women, the physically challenged, and even the retired but not
too old citizens to join the labor force, thereby giving them a sense of belongingness and
relevance.

 It enables the nation to look inwards, exploit, and protect its local resources

Technological and the Economic Empowerment of a Nation

Technical and vocational skill is vital to economic development for two important reasons.
First, technical and vocational skills are needed for enterprise productivity and profitability,
as well as for national productivity and wealth creation. Without the necessary technical
skills, enterprise and national growth can be seriously hobbled. Technological innovation and
economic growth fuel the demand for skilled workers. The need for technical and vocational
skills is increasing because of a convergence of factors-technological change, changes in
work organization, growing economic openness and competitiveness, and capital deepening
(increasing capital per worker). Furthermore, technical and vocational education is of great
relevance to the technological and economic status of a nation and its importance in this
direction includes the following.

 Technological breakthroughs and advancement, which naturally lead to economic

emancipation and independence.

 Appropriate development and proper positioning of the technological and economic power
of a nation through appropriate human resource development.

 Improvement the per-capita income of citizens, thereby boosting the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP).

 Effective poverty alleviation programs.

 Effective mobility of labor through training and re-training.

 Boosts in economic activities and services.

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 Effective handling the issue of transfer of technology and its attendant problems.

 Reduction of over-dependence on imported products.

 Conservation of the resources that could have been spent in engaging the services of foreign
experts.

 Creation of a technological identity for the nation.

The Nation

Vocational education plays a vital role in the survival and development of any nation
especially, the developing ones such as Ethiopia. This point can never be overemphasized.
The importance of Vocational Education to the nation includes.

 Increase in the productive power of the nation;

 It meets the work force needs of the nation;

 Propelling of the nation towards all-round independence, stability and elf-reliance. This
implies a situation whereby a nation is able to provide for and face her various needs and
challenges with little or no assistance from other nations. This is the case with the developed
nations of the world such as Britain, America and Japan;

 Emphasis on career-education boosts the workforce thereby promoting national growth and
development;

 Conservation and development the vast of natural resources with which the country has
been blessed;

 Correction of the discrepancy that often exists between the number of graduates and the
number of existing job opportunities in the nation;

 Attraction of more people into the labor market through increase in the occupational/study
options available the citizens;

It is important to note that the various attributes of vocational education are not watertight or
mutually exclusive. Rather, they are interdependent as one enhances the other.

Lesson 4: Objectives of Vocational Education

Activity 4

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 • Discuss the following questions in groups and present your answers to the classmates.

1. What are the objectives of TVET globally?

2. What are the general and specific objectives of TVET in Ethiopia?

Objectives of vocational education can hold very general (international level) or specific (at a
national level).

2.1. General Objectives

The first objective of vocational education, as defined by Evans and Herr is that of meeting
society’s needs for workers. Historically, vocational education, or some form of it, has
provided workers through on the job training, apprenticeship, trade schools, and schools. In
this historical context, job placement is based on local need and could vary significantly from
state to state and according to national needs. This is a simple method of supplying workers,
so how do we judge the need for workers and thereby prepare to meet that need?

One of the ways to prepare job placement is to observe long-term trends. Evans and Herr
indicate that the steady mechanization of labor over the 20th century replaced unskilled
workers with other sources of work. This does mean, though, that as unskilled labor is
mechanized, “skilled labor is needed to manufacture, install, adjust, and repair machines”
(ibid.). Another long-term trend is that the number of workers producing goods has gone
down, while the “corresponding increase” has been in employment in service and clerical
occupations.

There is no scientific method for accurately forecasting society’s need for workers. Evans and
Herr describe half of vocational enrolment as being made up of adults who are looking to
change occupations (ibid.), so this sheds some doubt on whether or not the objective of
meeting society’s need for workers is a feasible one. Perhaps the goal in this objective, as
mentioned by Evans and Herr, is to maintain the society’s economy while providing each
individual with a sense that his or her work contributes to that maintenance.

The second objective of vocational education is to increase the career options that are
available to each individual. Experience on the job can increase a worker’s options, just as
university education can increase one’s knowledge. Neither of these is a goal of industry in
general; vocational education can be utilized in this role.

To increase options through education is a difficult endeavor, as there are many factors that
may affect one’s career options. Internal career ladders, i.e. organizations that advance
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employees along a designated career path, can hinder career options, especially if
advancement is based on seniority alone. Vocational education can enhance career options as
related to the career ladder by preparing an individual to enter the workforce at a higher
“rung” on the ladder. Other factors that affect career options, in addition to the presence or
absence of vocational education, are income and social class, sex differences, family
influence, learning and thinking styles, and individual intellectual abilities.

The third objective of vocational education is to keep individuals interested in every form of
education, in what Evans and Herr refer to as “lending intelligibility to general education”
(ibid). General education is defined in various ways, from “educating for leisure” to
“acquiring the ability…to cope with one’s environment in today’s world”. The best
description of general education is that which is useful to all students.

One of the main tenets of educating adults is maintaining the applicability of the instruction.
Evans and Herr noted that many educators cannot differentiate the “fine line” (ibid) between
general and vocational education. For example, there may be vocational education that is
applicable in very few occupational situations. Is this, therefore, general educational content?
In many cases there are general requirements that must be satisfied before a student begins
the vocational portion of the educational program. Evans and Herr conclude that the third
goal is neglected because of the issue of differentiating the two types of education and the
difficulty of eliminating content that is not relevant (ibid). They also believe that it is the
responsibility of educators to make both general and vocational education “intelligible”.

4.2 Objectives of Technical and Vocational Education in Ethiopia

The overall objective of the National TVET Strategy is to create a competent, motivated,
adaptable and innovative workforce in Ethiopia contributing to poverty reduction and social
and economic development through facilitating demand-driven, high quality technical and
vocational education and training, relevant to all sectors of the economy, at all levels and to
all people. Specifically, the National TVET Strategy aims to:

 Create and further develop a comprehensive, integrated, outcome-based and decentralized

TVET system for Ethiopia

 Strengthen TVET institutions in view of making them Centers for Technology Capability,
Accumulation and Transfer

 Create a coherent framework for all actors and stakeholders in the TVET system

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 Establish and capacitate the necessary institutional set-up to manage and implement TVET
in ensuring quality management system (QMS)

 Improve the quality of TVET (formal and non-formal) at all levels and make it responsive
to the needs of the labor market

 Facilitate the expansion of relevant TVET offers which are crucial to national development

 Strengthen the private training provision and encourage enterprises to participate in the
TVET system

 Empower women and rural people through skills development

 Ensure equal access of women and people with special needs to TVET

 Strengthen the culture of self-employment and support job creation in the economy, in
particular in the emerging regions

 Develop a sustainable financing system for TVET with efficient and cost-effective delivery
systems and management structures  Build the necessary human capacities to effectively
manage and implement TVET

Lesson 5: Modern Principles of Vocational

Education
Activity 5

• Discuss the following questions in groups and present your answers to the classmates.

1. What are the Modern Principles of Vocational Education?

2. What are the Features/Characteristics of Vocational Education?

Principles, like objectives of vocational education can be at the international level (general) at
the country level

5.1. General

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According to Miller (1985), modern principles of vocational education can be considered
with respect to people, programs, and process. These principles are further explained as
follows.

Principles and People

 Guidance is an essential component of vocational education

 Lifelong learning is promoted through vocational education

 Needs of the community are reflected by programs of vocational education

 Vocational education is open to all

 Placement to the next step is a responsibility of vocational education

 Elimination of sex bias and sex-role stereotyping is promoted through vocational education

 Individuals with special needs are served through vocational education

 Student organizations are an integral part of vocational education

 Teachers of vocational education are both professionally and technically competent

 A positive work ethic is promoted through vocational education

Principles and Programs

 The career awareness and prevocational education components of career education

complement vocational education

 Vocational education is a part of the public system of comprehensive education

 Curricula for vocational education are derived from requirements in the world of work

 Families of occupations are a basis for developing curricula for vocational education at the
secondary level

 Innovation is stressed as a part of vocational education

 Persons are prepared for at least job entry through vocational education

 Safety is paramount in vocational education

 Supervised occupational experience is provided through vocational education

Principles and Process

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 Advice from the community is sought in providing programs of vocational education

 Articulation and coordination are central to the purposes of vocational education

 Evaluation is a continuous process in vocational education

 Follow-up is a vital extension of vocational education

 Federal legislation for vocational education is a reflection of national priorities

 Comprehensive planning is stressed in vocational education

 Research on a continuing basis is fundamental to the dynamics of vocational education

5.2 Guiding Principles of the National TVET System in Ethiopia

In pursuing the objectives stated above (section 132), the following principles, according to
MoE (2008), will guide and define further development and implementation of the TVET
system.

Demand-orientation

All TVET in Ethiopia has to respond to the competence needs and qualification requirements
in the labor market. TVET is geared towards enhancing the competitiveness of all economic
sectors through a competent workforce and towards improving people’s employability in the
labor market and with regard to self-employment.

Quality and Relevance

The TVET system strives for the highest quality and relevance of all TVET offers. It will
develop effective means of quality management, will continuously monitor the relevance of
TVET programs and will provide support and guidance to TVET institutions to achieve
defined quality standards. An important mechanism for this will be the introduction of the
system of occupational standards, assessment and certification.

Equal access and equal opportunity

The TVET system strives for social inclusion by increasing overall access to relevant formal,
non-formal TVET and informal learning opportunities by all target groups, while ensuring
equality of access. The previous neglect of people without relevant schooling, school drop-
outs, and people living in the rural areas, people with special needs, and people who are
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already in work will be overcome. TVET will be accessible, irrespective of the level of
educational attainment, gender, ethnic and religious affiliation.

Pathways

The TVET system will promote vertical and horizontal mobility and progression between
different TVET occupations and different qualification levels, but also between TVET,
general and higher education. TVET should always create the possibility of career
progression and continuation of learning.

Flexibility

To respond to the changing occupational requirements and to accommodate the different

demand of the various target groups, the TVET system will allow and encourage flexibility
and dynamic development of the TVET offers. This applies to the organization and delivery
of TVET programs as well as to the way in which people can pursue their individual
occupational careers.

Life-long learning

The TVET system will provide life-long learning opportunities (including initial and further
TVET) to enable the workforce to keep a pace with the rapidly changing work environments
brought about by technological progress and development in the organization of work. Life-
long learning also implies that people can continuously enhance their recognized
qualifications.

Gender sensitivity

TVET will be gender-sensitive. All TVET opportunities will be equally accessible to female.
TVET institutions will have to develop gender sensitive policies in order to ensure that they
are not discriminated against through content or organization of TVET programs and to
effectively prevent harassment of female trainees and staff members.

Contributing to the fight against HIV/AIDS

TVET will contribute to the fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia by
incorporating awareness creation and training about preventive measures in all its programs.
Furthermore, TVET institutions will develop policies to ensure that HIV positive trainees and
staff members are not discriminated against.

Contributing to environmental protection

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TVET will help create environmental awareness in Ethiopia and will educate Ethiopians
about sustainable uses of scarce natural resources.

Lesson 6: Characteristics of Vocational Education

Activity 6

• Discuss the following questions critically.

1. What are the main features of Vocational Education?

2. From your experience in the TVET sector how do you see the application of these
features in program design and delivery?

The features or characteristics of anything are marks of identity for that thing. They refer to
those distinguishing and special traits that make something whatever it is and different from
all other things no matter how similar. Vocational education has some clearly noticeable
features that should make it what it is expected to be. In other words in TVE the following
features should prevail.

 The training environment for vocational education should replicate the working
environment itself; or the actual working environment (same tools, machines, tasks,
procedures, operations, etc).

 The training should be directly and specifically job-oriented; that is, each task should be
done in the same way it is expected to be done at the place of work.

 The trainees (students) should be specifically trained on the manipulative and thinking
habits required in the real working situation.

 This type of education should help the students to maximize their interests, abilities,
aptitudes, and potentials. Consequently training should be given to those who need it, want it,
and are able to benefit from it.

 Adequate repetitive training in tasks and experiences from the place of work should be used
to establish the right habits of doing and thinking to the degree necessary or acceptable for
employment.

 The teacher should be a master of the knowledge and skills that he/she teaches.

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 The training should be continued to the point where the students acquire a productive
ability with which they can gain and retain an employment.

 A vocational education program must strive to meet the requisite market demands for labor
(acceptable standard) in a given occupation. There should also be enough room for improving
set standards.

 Education and training should be given on actual jobs not just limited on simulated and
pseudo jobs.

 Vocational education curriculum contents should be generated by masters and successful

practitioners of the occupation; not from ordinary theorists.

 Vocational education and training should emphasize functional and specific body of content
materials relevant to each occupation.

 Vocational education should meet the peculiar training needs of any group whenever and
however they require it; and hope to benefit maximally from it.

 The training in vocational education should consider the peculiar characteristics of those it
serves-in terms of choice of instructional methods and personal relationship with them.

 The administration of vocational education should be elastic, fluid, and flexible.

Unnecessary rigidity should be avoided.

 Vocational education is capital intensive. Therefore, the funds invested in training must at
least be adequate for good training to be done.

Lesson 7: Foundations of Vocational Education

Activity 7

• Being group or individually tackle the following questions critically

1. Define the foundations of Vocational Education

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 2. List out the different foundations on which Vocational Education is anchored.

3. Which of the foundations of vocational education is basic? Why?

4. What is the ultimate assumption of each of the foundations for vocational education?

5. Examine your area of study against the foundations of vocational education.

Vocational education, like any other education streams, draws its roots back to the
philosophical, psychological, sociological, and economical foundations.

Answering the question of what should be taught in vocational education and training is
possible only when one refers to its philosophical foundations. The question of resources and
work habits definitely fall within the zone of economic foundation.

Vocational Education
Psychological Economic
Foundations Philosophical Foundations Sociological Historical
Foundations Foundations Foundations

Figure 2. Major Foundations of Vocational Education

Philosophical Foundations

Hornby (2000) defines philosophy as “a particular set or system of beliefs resulting from the
search for knowledge about life and the universe”. Many people would prefer to ignore
philosophy and focus entirely on "practical" aspects of education. Without some
philosophical foundation, however, we would find ourselves in the dark, unable to determine,
what content needs to be taught, why it needs to be taught, and who needs to be taught.
Without this foundation upon which we can build applicable pedagogical practices we may
be tracking in the wrong direction or even without a clear direction. A philosophical

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foundation in vocational education helps us to determine what should be taught (content) and
what and how of knowledge production and transmission.

The philosophy of vocational/technical education according to Okorie (2001):

– The occupational choice of individuals should be based on the orientation of

the individual such as interests, aptitude, ability etc.

– All honorable and honest occupations are worthy of considerations in making

the decision about life’s work.

– Each individual should have the opportunity to select an occupation in

harmony with his orientation and the opportunities for employment in that
occupation.

N.B. The foundation of vocational/technical education is based on the philosophy which was
mainly established for self- employment and self-reliance of the individual(s) who partake in
it.

The worth of an individual to society grows out of his contribution of skills, knowledge, and
applied productive capacity to tasks that need to be completed, rather than out of artificial
status connotation attached to some glamorous jobs. Resources for education must be
provided to develop all human resources: otherwise, some individuals may possibly menace
other individuals. Allocation of resources must reflect the needs of people. Priorities must be
adjusted to provide resources in direct proportion to the cost of the investment required.

The philosophy of vocational/technical education stated by Prosser (1949) is:

• For vocational technical education and training to be effective, the training should be
fashioned in the same way, same operations using the same tools and machines in
respect of the occupation being prepared. The environment in which the trainee is
prepared should resemble the environment he must eventually get employed in.

• Vocational technical education is effective to the extent that the individual is trained
directly and specifically in the thinking and manipulative habits required in the
desired occupation.

• For every occupation, there is a minimum level of preparation needed in order to

enable the trainees obtained and retain employment in that occupation and if the

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 preparation is not attained up to that level, the occupation will neither benefit the
trainee nor the society.

Practical activities in vocational technical training are found in many subject areas such as:
woodwork, metal work, building construction, tailoring and dress making, dyeing, plumbing,
electrical installation, block laying and concreting, carpentry and joinery, furniture making,
motor vehicle mechanic works, electronics, radio and television servicing and technical
drawing. Studies have revealed that the degree of the contributions made by educated people
on the job is dependent upon the degree of the appropriateness of the vocational training
(Nneji, 1997). The emphasis laid on the appropriateness of vocational training in the
developed countries emanates from the fact that such training is said to have on job
performance (Nneji, Ibid).

Sociological Foundations

Hornby (2000) defines sociology as the scientific study of the nature and development of
society and social behavior. The sociological overview of vocational technical education is
the societal opinion about vocational technical education.

The importance of vocational education in sociological point of view cannot be undermined.

Unemployment, juvenile delinquency, adult crime, unstable and unsatisfactory homes have
been attributed to lack of vocational education and training. Some social reformers,
professional sociologists, educators and writers have been so convinced of the broad social
value of vocational technical education that ascribe most social ills to vocational
incompetence and therefore, conclude that vocational technical education is the answer to
many of them; For example, unemployment, the alienation of youth and lack of respect for
social institutions. Indeed, they perceived vocational education as anything less than the
salvation of civilization.

Enrolment rate in vocational technical education programs are still low. No improvement has
been made in terms of vocational technical education enrolment. People prefer courses in
general education that will prepare them for professions like law, medicine, pharmacy,
nursing, engineering etc. with apathy to vocational technical education.

Parents are not far from blame in this awesome discrimination against vocational technical
education. They encourage their children, wards to read glamorous courses that do not
involve practical skills. They prefer working in air conditioned offices as white collar
workers. Most people choose an occupation because of social status and prestige in their
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community as well as opting to satisfy their friends and associates undermining their aptitude
for the course (Okorie, 2001).

Vocational and technical education has remained a subordinate discipline in terms of societal
recognition, adequate funding and parental/children’s choice. It is not surprising; therefore,
that transition from junior secondary school to the technical is in favor of general education
(liberal education curriculum). The issue of poor transition from junior secondary schools to
vocational technical education programs is still a common phenomenon today.

Vocational technical education right from its inception has been tagged “education for the
handicapped, for the drop-out and for the never-do-well (Odu and Brose, 2003). Students’
loss of interest and apathy towards manual work can be attributed to society’s apathy towards
manual work even though the current high rate of unemployment should teach otherwise.

Economic Foundations

The economics of vocational education calls into question many of the practices and
procedures behind it. Economists concerned with vocational education are interested in two
questions:

 Is vocational education preparing more people to work than are necessary in the field
(Demand and Supply) and

 Would there be more efficiency in vocational education if expenses were increased or

decreased? (Efficiency and Effectiveness)

The economic foundation of vocational education, although somewhat theory based, has
definite advantages for vocational education and training providers and employers who are
planning ahead for supply and demand issues.

Psychological Foundations

The psychological aspects of vocational education form the strongest foundations. This is
because:

• Firstly, psychology helps us to design instruction effectively, helps us determine if

learning has really occurred, and then helps us redesign instruction to make sure that
learning occurs in the future.

• Psychology also tells us that learning occurs more efficiently if the learner sees a
demonstration of the task before performing it. This same psychology tells us that
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 immediate knowledge of results helps students to learn the most important things and
stay motivated to learn.

• The psychological explanation of individual differences also helps determine the most
efficient ways of delivering vocational education.

• Psychology gives us a basis for vocational success as related to intelligence: certain

occupations may see poor performance below certain intelligence levels, intelligence
can augment one’s promotable, and intelligence can be linked to success in
occupations that require verbal skill.

Historical Foundations

The history of society in general is interwoven with attempts to meet societal needs for
skilled man power. While the need for trained personnel has been recognized throughout
history, the problem of providing such personnel has become increasingly difficult, as the
rate of change in needs for workers has accelerated.

The study of past experiences on vocational education enables us to understand present

problems in the stream better and make prediction on its future course. Thus, historical
foundation helps us to have deeper insight about vocational education in a given nation.

Lesson 8: Historical Development of Vocational

Education
Activity

• Being group or individually tackle the following questions critically

1. Discuss the Historical Development of Vocational Education Globally

2. Discuss the Historical Development of Vocational Education in Ethiopia

The historical development of vocational education can be considered as a result of the

different methods the society has employed so as to meets its needs and hence, workers at the
various levels and sectors. A brief description of some of them is presented in the following
for general and Ethiopian purposes.

8.1 Historical Development of Vocational Education Globally

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Family-it, in most cases, plays a decisive role in passing over the requirements of a vocation
like that of farming to their children, especially in the traditional community. The father was
responsible to pass on to his sons and the mother to pass on to her daughters the occupation
information they had acquired from their parents, plus what they had learned by trial and
error during a generation of productive work. However, such method of transferring skill is
no longer satisfactory to meet the newly emerging technological developments and the
accompanying job market needs. On-the-Job Training: while training by the parent was
accomplished almost entirely at the place of work and was carried out simultaneously with
productive activity, the next type of on-the-job training included a new element. The
instructor was a worker who was not necessarily a member of the family.

On-the-Job Training (OJT)- by individuals other than parents occurred whenever members
of more than one family were engaged in a productive activity. It had the advantage of
providing for the orphan, and it allowed the new worker to learn from more than one
instructor. However, it has the disadvantage that the trainer did not have a vested interest in
seeing and checking that the new worker was fully trained. OJT continues in occupations
from the simplest to the most complex, but in most vocations, it emphasizes the teaching of
those skills and knowledge, which are unique to a particular employer and hence are not
suitable for more institutionalized types of vocational education.

Apprenticeship: OJT has always been relatively haphazard. The new worker observes
practices, learns by trial and error, and occasionally receives direct instruction ((f the
experienced worker does not feel threatened by the potential instruction). There is no
guarantee that the new worker will learn everything about the occupation. Instead, he/ she
probably will learn only a portion of what is practiced in a particular place of employment at
a certain time. To all alleviate such sorts of problems, another development in vocational
education, apprenticeship took place.

Apprenticeship attempted to combine the best of family instruction and OJT by having an
experienced worker agree to teach the full range of an occupation, acting in lieu of the parent.
In return, the trainer received the services of the apprentice for a certain time span. The
method of instruction was similar to that used by the family and on-the-job training, but was
more complete because the trainer agreed not to withhold any of the mysteries of the craft as
was (and is) so commonly the case in OJT.

Modern apprenticeship continues even today in many parts of the world highly skilled, for
instance, metalworking industries and construction occupations. The principal changes have
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been that the apprenticeship begins later in life, lasts for a shorter period and instruction is
guaranteed by a group of employers or employees rather than by a single skilled craftsperson.

Schools: the relatively new and recent method used for providing occupational skills has
been the school. Originally, schools in general required the presence of several novices who
could be given nearly identical instruction in the theory and practice of an occupation.
Schools for the priesthood (which was regarded as being so highly skilled that apprenticeship
would not suffice) began more than three thousand years ago.

As time went on other many occupations acquired sufficient importance and content to
warrant the development of special schools to meet societal needs. At present, almost every
skilled, technical, and professional occupation inducts at least part of its workers through
formal school programs offered in technical schools, community colleges, universities, and
private occupational schools. In addition to their occupational purposes, schools are now used
as a means of importing knowledge, which is useful to all citizens, regardless of the type of
occupation.

8.2 Development of Vocational Education in Ethiopia

Traditional attitudes in Ethiopia relegated the skill worker to the status of an outcast. Potters,
metal workers, leather workers, and wood carvers were despised and excluded from the
possibility of owing land which was the foundation of the feudal society. These attitudes
persisted until the revolution of 1974. The Fascist invasion in 1935 has important cultural
side effects. In the process of developing a colonial economy and social infrastructure, the
Mussolini regime imported an estimated 200,000 Italian artisans and technical personnel who
were required for elements of modernization under Fascist rule (MoE, 1984).

In 1940s and early 1950s, a number of institutes for technical and vocational training were
established to train technical personnel who can meet for middle level manpower (MoE,
1984). The basic objective for establishing these training institutes was to produce
administrative and managerial elite who can fill the vacancy available.

In 1974 when the military government took power from the monarch, the enrolment in
technical and vocational training was observed to be low. During this time, technical and
vocational education found to be poorly developed with only few schools in Addis Ababa and
in other bigger towns such as Hawasa, Dire-Dawa, and Nazareth. It was found as well that

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the comprehensive system of offering technical and vocational to be a failure and there was a
plan to change the whole set of system to general polytechnic education.

Although steps have been taken since 1974 to give attention for technical and vocational
training, the outcome was not as expected. The system that was introduced during the
military government (general polytechnic education) was a direct copy of the Eastern
countries such as the former USSR, GDR, Cuba, and the like. Generally, polytechnic
education system program of training have been defined for a number of skill areas designed
to apply middle level technical manpower (MoE, 1984).

Starting from 1991, technical and vocational education has been gaining its momentum and
became the agenda of the present government. According to the Education and Training
Policy of Ethiopia (MoE, 1994), attention shall be given to this sector having in mind that the
general development of this country will be unthinkable without producing well-qualified
middle level skilled personnel in various fields of studies. Introducing a variety of fields into
the program and changing the general policy and the general goals of technical and
vocational education has manifested this fact. Hence, TVET expanded throughout the country
and a number of schools jumped from 17 to 126 in 2001/2006 academic year (MoE, 2002).

Generally speaking, the development of the TVET sector of education in Ethiopia is still in
its infancy and remained a neglected sub-sector of education until recently (MoE, 2002). The
international comparative data (1994) as cited in MoE (2002) stated that „the proportion of
TVET to academic students at the secondary level of education in Ethiopia was nine times
less than that of the Sub-Saharan African countries. When compared to Europe, this
proportion was 36 times less for Ethiopia‟. Though the expansion of TVET in Ethiopia is less
when compared with other countries, it is vital to discuss how the sector was developed
through time. Hence, the discussion in the following sections gives an idea as to how
technical and vocational education has been developed in Ethiopia.

Technical and Vocational Education before 1974

The most important factor for the development of TVET is the skill and knowledge gap of the
people. There was a time back in history when Ethiopians valued the skill of people and as a
result the country was relatively an important center of technology and arts of that time.
Technical and vocational education was superior in ancient Ethiopia. The culture and
architecture remains unequivocally stand witness of this fact art, music, sculpture, literary

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work, and commerce in Ethiopia were superior to those in the now developed countries of the
world that time.

The start of TVET is this country is attributed to Emperor Tewodros and Emperor Menelik II
who gave chance for foreigners to involve in training the young Ethiopians. The objective of
the training was to train personnel who can maintain modern employment that are imported
from Europe. The field of the training was mechanic, technicians, maintenance personnel,
and the like (Teshome, 1979).

It was during Emperor Haileselassie I that the first modern technical school, Addis Ababa
Technical School, was established in 1942. The objective for the establishment was to meet
the growing demands for skilled technicians in the industry (ibid). Another development
observed in the expansion of technical and vocational education and training was the
establishment of the Addis Ababa Commercial School in the annex with Menelik II School in
1943. It has now changed its status to university level and it is one of the prominent higher
institutions as far as business and secretarial sciences fields of studies are concerned (ibid).

One of the important vocational schools established during the so called” reconstruction era”
is Ambo Agriculture School. The school was opened in 1946 as a center for the study of
agriculture in Ethiopia. Although the long-range plan was to raise it to college level, the
school remained as secondary level throughout the period from 1946 to 1951. From the
beginning, Ambo Agriculture School was well staffed and well equipped with agricultural
tools and machines. A complete agriculture laboratory was received from the United States of
America. Ambo College of Agriculture is now Ambo University (ibid). Jimma Agriculture
School was opened in 1955 with similar objectives as that of Ambo Agriculture School,
which was aimed at producing modern agriculturalist to fill the vacancies that arise in the
area of agriculture (ibid).

Bahir Dar Polytechnic which was established after Jimma and Ambo Agricultural Schools
was one of the institutes established with basic objective of training wellcapable technical
personnel who could work in the industry as technicians and technical managers. Polytechnic
was established in 1963. The fields of studies were Agro Mechanics, Electricity, Textile,
Wood Technology, Metal Technology, and Industrial Chemistry (ibid).

As it is well known, missionary society had an important role in introducing modern

education in Ethiopia. This was also expanding technical and vocational education.
According to unpublished report of the ministry of education (1984),the Seven-Day Adventist

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Mission Society had opened technical and vocational school at Kuyera (Oromia region) in
1946 with major objective of training young Ethiopia in various technical and vocational
fields to meet the growing demand of trained manpower. In 1960 the Philadelphia Mission
Society established a technical school at Hawasa, which was nationalized by the military
government which later was one of the schools‟ founded during that time and has served its
purpose to train students in different fields of study. The courses offered were Carpentry,
Bricklaying, Tractor Driving, Auto Mechanics, and Metalwork.

Another development observed in the development process of TVET before 1974 was the
introduction of “comprehensive‟ program in the formal education system. As Girma, et.al
(1990) pointed out ‟Comprehensive „program was introduced in 1961 to the secondary
school of Ethiopia‟. The objective of comprehensive program was to prepare students for
different jobs and replace the previously established training centers because it was found
that they were less adequate to satisfy the growing demand for skilled manpower. To achieve
this objective, Agriculture, Industrial Arts, Commerce, and Home economics were offered
side-by-side with academic subjects (ESR, Task Force 2).

Comprehensive high school is an American phenomenon. This term refers to a program that
can be offered at one administration and under one roof or series of roofs (Conant, 1968).
Accordingly, Woizero Sihen Secondary School in Dessie was the first general secondary
school to be converted to comprehensive secondary school in Ethiopia and later many other
schools were converted to comprehensive secondary schools (Girma, et.al., 1990). Later, it
was observed that, the inadequacy of the comprehensive schools did not satisfy the public
since graduates of comprehensive schools become unemployed. The main reason for the
unemployment of the graduates was the inadequacy of the training system of these schools.
The dissatisfaction by the public continues to grow and reached its climax and the
government was forced to take action, which resulted in revising the entire education system.
In this connection, the ESR (Educational Sector Review) was officially instituted in October
1971 (Tekeste, 1990). The review in relation with TVET revealed that” the existing
educational system produce large number of academically trained schools leavers… and who
lack employable skills.

In addition, according to Girma, et.al, (1990), the programs of TVET and comprehensive
secondary schools were not designed in congruence with the teacher training schemes in the
field which could be another possible reason for the comprehensive system to be ineffective.
From the above discussions, it can be concluded that TVET before 1974 was the time of

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comprehensive secondary schools which was introduced into the general education system.
However, it has been observed that there was public dissatisfaction in the inadequacy of
comprehensive schools and that of the education system which forced the government to take
measure and review the system. In agreement with the above idea, (Wagaw1979) writes “
Over the last twenty years the developed of Ethiopia educational system has been viewed
with dissatisfaction, principally because it has failed to satisfy the aspiration of the majority
of the people to prepare in any adequate way those passing its rank”.

Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) from 1974-1991

As far as the expansion of technical and vocational training is concerned Gumble, et.al.
(1983:13) states that “the system of technical and vocational training under the ministry of
education has until 1974 been very small”. He further points out that “before 1974 this
consisted of two full-fledged technical schools, commercial school, and polytechnic institute
and few mission schools in different parts of the country”.

During this time (1974-1991), there was a shift both in the goals and objectives of technical
and vocational education. Thus, the military government’s primary task as far as technical
and vocational education is concerned was to identify the major problems/ drawbacks of the
sector. Based on this, the MoE was able to identify the shortcoming of the pre-revolution
education system so as to change the then working curricula. The assessment by MoE
showed the irrelevance of the curriculum to bring the desired socio-economic development of
the country.

The irrelevance of the curriculum could be seen from the point of view of the new social
system change that took place in the country which envisaged a corresponding change in the
previous curricula. Hence, contrary to the previous policy, the new program was geared
towards the development of all rounded human personality. Therefore, a concept of preparing
work related subjects placed in a polytechnic framework of education and replaced the old
curriculum. According to Evans (1971) the purpose of polytechnic education is to help
students to develop creative technical abilities and to inculcate a love and respect for physical
labor and work.

A system of general polytechnic education was introduced into the general educational
system by the military government with the objective of enabling young Ethiopians to
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appreciate and practice technical and vocational education. The objective of general
polytechnic education system is to provide students with the basic skills of technical and
vocational education together with some academic subjects.

The curriculum included major technical and vocational subjects such as Metal Work, Wood
Work, Electricity, Auto Mechanics, Drawing, Bookkeeping, and Home Economics etc. The
program was offered in few specialized technical and vocational training centers and in the
entire senior secondary schools. The curriculum of general polytechnic education was as the
name implies contains all technical and vocational subjects with the intention to produce all
rounded technicians having all kinds of technical and vocational skill, which enable trainees
to work in industry and other related offices. According to MOE (1980) there are general,
higher general, and extended TVET programs within the system of polytechnic education.

General polytechnic education was a program which included all the major areas of content
treated appropriately for the junior secondary (grade 7-8) level. While higher general
polytechnic education was a program offered at ninth and tenth grades, the extended TVET
program was given to prepare and produce skilled manpower. The polytechnic education
program has been defined for a number of skill areas designed to produce a supply of middle
level technical manpower. In order to train such manpower the ministry of education foresees
a number of technical and vocational schools offering courses in grades 11 and 12. The
system comprised six schools, two technical schools and two mission schools transferred to
the ministry of education. The six schools mentioned above had combined output of 1600
students in 1981/82 in various technical and commercial courses. Entrance to these schools
varies from 8 to 10 years of formal education and the duration of the courses ranges from 2 to
4 years. In addition, a variety of vocational streams were offered in the then comprehensive
secondary schools (MOE, 1984).

Later, it was found that, the education given in TVET schools was not related to available
fields in the industries. It failed to prepare students for the other available jobs and as a result,
the majority had to employ in jobs that had no connection with their training. To this end, in
1983, the government passed a resolution calling for a review of the education sector
(Tekeste, 1990). As a result of this review in 1985, a 10+3 year program was inaugurated and
new training policy composed of various criteria become functional. This change was
intended to equip the prospective graduates with better knowledge and skills, which could not
be covered at the previous 10+2 level. General polytechnic education served to some extent
but has failed for many reasons. One of the criticisms is that the number of subjects offered to

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students which were too many. Many scholars were against this system because the number
of subjects offered to students to learn is too many and beyond the capacity of students.
Another criticism of the system is that the period allotment for each subject is not sufficient
to cover the curriculum in the given period of time. Generally speaking the time allocated
was not sufficient due to excessive subjects that were offered.

As discussed earlier, the previous 10+2 training program was replaced by 10+3 program, The
10+3 training program was launched to fulfil the following specific objectives of the training
program.

 To develop the skills of modern production system.

 To familiarize one with processes and the means of production in the economic sector.

 To link theory and practice.

 To practically and effectively participate in local development activities, Gumble, et.al,

(1983) stated that starting from 1974 the government started to remove the obstacles standing
on the way of technical and vocational education in terms of bringing a change in attitude,
allocate adequate funds to the sector, train manpower required, and expand the infrastructure
etc.

Technical and vocational education was offered at tertiary level as well. Some of the higher
education institutes offering such type of education were Addis Ababa University, Asmara
University, the College of Teachers Education, the Municipality Technical College, and
Junior Agriculture College at Debre Zeit and Hawasa are among the few institutes (ibid). The
major part of technical and vocational training was conducted under the then commission for
higher education. The level of the training was at diploma and degree level. Training centers
attached to public organizations such as the Ethiopia Airlines, Ethiopia Telecommunication,
Ethiopia Light and Power Authority, Air Transport Authority, Ethiopian Road Authority and
General Ethiopia Transport are some of the training centers to be mentioned. These training
centers still are playing a vital role in producing well-trained manpower in the specified field
for their own consumption (ibid).

Towards the end of the military regime, it was observed that the existing training program has
failed to fulfil its objectives and the entire program become ineffective. According to the
study conducted by Birhanu, et.al, (1992) around the fall of the Dergue regime, trainees‟
enrolment was declining. The reason, according to these writers, was the dissatisfaction of

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trainees in some fields of program and the training given was not based on the real needs of
the country. Other factors that contributed for the ineffectiveness of the program were as
follows.

 Lack of proper orientation through vocational guidance program.

 Graduates from the department of psychology were not taking any course regarding
vocational guidance so that they cannot render effective guidance when assigned to work in
TVET centers.

The present government after taking power from the Dergue regime in 1991 started to
identify the major problems of the educational sector and efforts have been made to overhaul
the entire system, which has given priority for formulating new education and training policy.
In the preceding pages, effort has been made to discuss how these tasks have been achieved.

Technical and vocational Education and Training (TVET) from 1991-to Date

According to the Ministry of Education unpublished report (2002), among the major factors
militating against rapid expansion and quality improvement of the program were irresponsive
and rigid curricula, inadequate physical facilities and equipment, acute shortage of the
qualified technical teacher‟s who able to support personnel, poor management, insufficient
budget and materials allocation, weak linkage between the program and other development
setups. However, the single most crucial problem was the absence of clear policy guideline as
to the exact role of the grogram in the socioeconomic development of the country. One of the
major concerns of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia, which took the power from the
military government, was to study the education problems practiced over the years and
formulate educational policy. To this effect, the ministry of education was given the
responsibility of facilitating activities with regard to the formulation of new educational and
training policy.

Aware of the complex and interrelated problems the TVET system entangled with, the
Transitional Government of Ethiopia has formulated the new Education and Training policy
(ETP) in 1994, through which it has embarked on giving an appropriate direction to set a new
process and change the worsening situation.

As stated on the education and training policy (1994), the provision of diversified technical
and vocational education and training to school leavers parallel to the general education was
envisaged. The policy encompasses, among others, over all education and training objectives
and implementing bodies as spring board for further undertaking. In line with the education
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and training policy, the following have been identified as general objectives of TVET. The
Major objectives of the TVET program were:

 To provide basic education and integrated knowledge at various level of vocational

training.

 To satisfy the country‟s need for skilled manpower and provide training in various skills
and at different levels.

 To make education supportive tool for developing traditional technology and for utilizing
modern technology.

 To provide education that promotes the culture of respect for work, positive work habits
and high regard for workmanship.

It is to satisfy these goals and objectives of technical and vocational and education that the
so-called new TVET program has been launched. GTZ unpublished report (2000:4- 5)
pointed out that diversified technical and vocational training have been provided for those
who leave school from any level of education. To this effect, the following three major
programs have been identified:

 Basic vocational training program for those who completed 1st level (grade 40 or dropout
from the 2nd level (grade 5-80 of the primary school with an appropriate age.

 Junior vocational training program for those who may not continue general education after
completing primary education or dropout from grade 9-10 of the secondary school.

 Middle level TVET program: at level (10+1,10+3) for those who successfully completed
general education (grade 10).

After the identification of the three major programs of TVET, effort has been made to revise
the old curriculum and design the new one, which reflects the objectives of the TVET in
general, and drafting training program in particular. Immediately, after the approval of the
new education and training policy, ICDR has taken the responsibility to design the new
curriculum in terms of the goal of each educational cycle (ICDR,1994,53:54) concerned
departments from Ministry of Education and other ministerial offices participated in
designing the curriculum. Private enterprises also participated in the processes.

Page | xxxv
UNIT 2: OUTCOME-BASED
EDUCATION

About this unit

1. This unit focuses on the essence, principles and characteristics of Outcome-based

Education which makes it distinct from input-based education.

2. The unit also focuses on the five different stages in the process of outcome-based
education.

Page | xxxvi
 3. This unit clearly presents the benefits and criticisms leveled against the Outcome-
based Education and training.

4. The unit shows that skipping one of the stages makes outcome-based education
impractical and non-functional.

Unit learning objectives

• At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

– Define competency-based education

– Analyze the major steps in the process of outcome-based education

– Analyze the merits and demerits of competency-based education

– Identify the major principles underpinning outcome-based education

– Point out the major characteristics of outcome-based education

– Demonstrate the skill of writing competency statements

Lesson 9: Meaning and Benefits of Outcome-Based

Training
Activity 9

• Either individually or in a group, would you please discuss the following questions
and present your answers to the class.

1. How do you define an outcomes-based Approach to Learning?

2. What are the criticisms leveled against the Outcome-based Education and training?

3. What are the benefits of an outcome-based Approach to Learning?

4. How do you see the challenges and enablers of the delivery of CBT in your setting?

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What is competency-based education?

Competency-based education is an approach to designing academic programs with a focus on

competencies (knowledge, skills and abilities) rather than time spent in a classroom.
Competency-based education combines an intentional and transparent approach to curricular
design with an academic model in which the time it takes to demonstrate competencies varies
and the expectations about learning are held constant. Students acquire and demonstrate their
knowledge and skills by engaging in learning exercises, activities and experiences that align
with clearly defined programmatic outcomes. Students receive proactive guidance and
support from faculty and staff. Learners earn credentials by demonstrating mastery through
multiple forms of assessment, often at a personalized pace.

Outcomes-based learning occurs when the learning content within a program is focused on
helping the learner build specific competencies to master a certain skill set. This type of
learning is often self-paced and personalized so that learners only take the courses that are
relevant to them and their role within an organization.

Competency Based Training (CBT) is a structured approach to training and assessment that is
directed toward achieving specific outcomes. It is about assisting individuals to acquire skills
and knowledge with a view to performing a task to a specified standard under certain
conditions. In CBT, the outcomes to be achieved are clearly stated so that learners know
exactly what they have to be able to do. The emphasis in competency based training is on
“performing” rather than just “knowing”.

Competency Based Training (CBT) is a way of approaching training that places primary
emphasis on what a person can do as a result of training (the product), and as such represents
a shift away from the emphasis on the process involved in training (the inputs).

Competency-based instruction can be delivered in various ways, from the traditional teacher-
centred approach to the non-traditional self-paced or student-centred delivery. Competency-
based instruction requires training programs that reflect standards of performance required by
industry – competency standards. The system of instruction employed will have significant
impact on the design and organization of the workshop/laboratory.

Benefits of an Outcome-based education

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Outcome-based education has a number of benefits. Here are some of the benefits of
Outcome-based education.

Transparency in the Learning Process

Transparency is one of the biggest strengths of outcome based education. It creates
transparency for both sides; the students know what to expect from a course, and the teachers
know what to deliver or demonstrate through the course structure. This allows them to choose
the right content and learning methods.
Precision
The clear expectations between the two parties help create a precise outcome, allowing
students to progress in the chosen field of interest. OBE can effectively prepare students for
their future careers, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to succeed in
their chosen fields.
Flexibility
OBE does not specify a definite method of teaching; the teacher structures the curriculum
around students’ needs and can alter it based on the assessment. This helps students to
accomplish the set goals in their own pace and time.
Comparison
OBE helps assess and compare every student’s achievement records to decide their course of
action in a new environment. Additionally, institutions can compare themselves, by checking
to see what outcomes they have in common and work the areas to improve.
Self-Development and Career Progression

Outcome based education encourages self-learning. Learners not only gain knowledge from
the trainers but also study on their own to gain complete knowledge. Candidates can also
identify their mistakes and weak points to take corrective steps and streamline their learning
path. The students can also analyze themselves against the job requirement and work on
enhancing their skills.

Higher Student Participation

Student participation is an essential part of OBE. The students can do their learning and
analyze their skills and development. OBE encourages learners to be active through
the training programs and put in effort from their side. They can speed up the process or take
more time to learn the finer aspects that will enrich their knowledge and help them present
their skills with greater precision.

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Analyze Students’ Performance
OBE assessments are conducted to determine the extent of the learner’s ability to use the
newly gained knowledge to achieve the desired outcome. The candidate’s strengths and
weaknesses are marked clearly so that trainers can focus on minimizing the weaknesses.
Trainers can monitor the progress of each student and know when they are ready to complete
the course.

This is not time bound but a long-term process that goes on until the learners become
efficient in displaying their skills as per the predefined outcome. Each candidate gets equal
treatment and attention. Learners have to compete with their previous selves and do better as
the training progresses. Any comparison in the process is limited to their
previous assessments and the final outcome and not with other students.

Assessments at Multiple Levels

A combination of assessment methods can be used by trainers to measure the progress of
each candidate during the course. This data is used to monitor the individuals’ growth and
learning abilities. Employers can go through the results of these assessments to determine if
the candidate is capable of handling the responsibilities of the job or if they require more
training. It also helps identify the right job for the candidate based on the strengths discovered
during the course.

Practical Emphasis

There can be less theoretical talk and more action in outcome-based training. If training
upskills employees, then they’ll need to show they have learned the skills at the end of the
assessment. The decision-makers gear the curriculum toward this.

Goal-Orientation

Working toward a goal can be very motivating. Having a bar set in advance keeps learners
and educators on track. When assessments too are properly designed and conducted,
outcome-based education can be fulfilling. Learners, who may be in training because of a
need gap identified on the job, know that they’ll improve performance at the end of it and put
in the work to succeed.

Criticism of Outcome-Based Education

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With a subject as broad as education, there’ll be opponents of every system. It isn’t possible
for everyone to agree on the best approach, nor is the same approach appropriate in all
situations. Outcome-based learning too has faced its share of resistance over the years.

Here are a few criticisms to consider:

It Misses the Nuance

Some believe we can’t measure all learning in terms of outcomes. In an outcome-based

system, constant progress is the purpose. For young learners, educators and parents might
prefer a more exploratory approach. A rigid outcome-based approach for the arts and
humanities can also be a challenge.

Assessment Is Everything

All learners are expected to reach the same level with no exceptions. While this keeps the
pressure on the educators to ensure all students excel, it can hurt those with a different
learning style or those with learning challenges. Some educators also believe that measuring
student progress against their own prior performance is an effective and motivational
strategy, which outcome-based education does not provide.

Too Much Flexibility

While flexibility is a strength of the outcome-based system, it can be a failing as well. The
OBE education approach is merely a set of guidelines that isn’t prescriptive. It’s up to the
local authority—be it school, institute or board—to decide what the outcomes are and what
the mode of assessment should be. If the program is poorly designed, with improperly
defined outcomes and assessment strategy, the result can be a bad learning experience.

Disruption

Such a shift in how instruction, assessment, and support is organized can be disruptive. But if
it’s well-managed, it can yield remarkable results for learners and institutions. This kind of
shift will require time and planning devoted to change management and making sure the
organization can support the lift.

Page | xli
Lesson 10: The Basic Principles and Characteristics
of OBT
Activity 10

• Either individually or in a group, would you please discuss the following questions.

1. What are the Principles that underpin the CBT?

2. What are the Key characteristics which are distinct for CBT?

The Basic Principles of competency-based training

A curriculum aligned towards Outcome-based Education (OBE) means it contains a clear

idea of what is actually important for learners to be able to do, leading to the organization of
the curriculum, delivery of instruction and assessment in such a way to make sure that this
learning ultimately happens. The basic principles of OBE are:

 Clarity of focus

Educators must be clearly focused on what they want their learners to understand and be able
to do. In other words, the focus of educators is helping learners to develop the knowledge,
skills and behaviour to enable them to achieve the clearly articulated learning outcomes.

 Designing down

The essence of OBE is to start with the end in mind – i.e. the outcomes. The design of the
curriculum must itself contain an appropriate definition of the intended learning outcomes
that learners are to achieve by the end of the program, this, in turn, will lead to all
instructional delivery decisions to ensure this desired end result.

 High expectations

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Educators are expected to establish challenging standards of high performance in order to
encourage their learners to engage deeply in what they are learning. This act of educators
promotes more successful learning.

 Expanded opportunities

Based on the idea that not all learners can learn the same concept in the same style in the
same duration, thus, educators must strive to provide expanded opportunities for their
learners. It is well noted that most learners can achieve very high standards if provided
appropriate opportunities timely.

On the basis of these principles, one can define Outcome-based Education as a student-
centric teaching and learning methodology in which the instruction delivery and assessment
are planned to achieve stated objectives and outcomes.

 Student Comes First

The needs of the learners come first in all considerations. So institutes won’t design the
curriculum around the expertise of its faculty; they will hire the faculty best able to deliver its
curriculum. The material is taught so learners can understand, and they can change it if
needed.

 Assessments Are Key

Assessments must measure learning outcomes. They can give students alternative methods of
demonstrating their learning if one method doesn’t work. While critics confuse OBE
education with standardized testing, this is not the intention behind it. There’s room for
creative and dynamic assessments that allow students to show their skill and understanding.

 Up to Date and Fresh Content

The content used for training has to be practical and updated. Here, authenticity refers to how
real or true the course material is to ensure that the candidates will achieve their goals.
Outdated content is not helpful in OBE. New and relevant content has to be created every
time.

 No Failures

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Content-based education has a grading system that measures the memory or understanding
abilities of the candidates. Those who cannot memorize and reproduce the content in the
required format fail the assessments. In outcome based education, the assessments are
designed to measure the application of the knowledge gained.

Characteristics of competency-based training

The following are the main characteristic features of the OBE approach:

• It is needs-driven. Curricula are designed in terms of the knowledge, skills and

attitudes expected from graduates and aim to equip students for lifelong learning.

• It is outcomes-driven. The model has a line that runs from taking cognisance of
training needs to setting an aim (purpose) for the programme, goals for syllabus
themes, learning outcomes, and finally assessing the learning outcomes in terms of the
set learning objectives.

• It has a design-down approach. Linked to needs and the purpose of the programme,
learning content is only selected after the desired outcomes have been specified.
Content becomes a vehicle to achieve the desired learning outcomes which are aimed
at inculcating a basis for life-long learning.

• It specifies outcomes and levels of outcomes. Learning objectives are described in

terms of Bloom's (1956) cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains and set
according to Mager's (1984) guidelines for formulating objectives.

• The focus shifts from teaching to learning. The model has a student-centred
learning approach where lecturers act as facilitators. Study guides help the learners to
organise their learning activities, and group work, continuous assessment and self-
assessment are major features.

• The framework is holistic in its outcomes focus. Although the learning objectives
are aimed at learning at grass-roots level, they are linked to goals and aims at higher
levels. Attaining learning objectives is therefore not an end in itself; it provides
building blocks for achieving higher-level outcomes.

• Integration of theory with practice. Supporting theory is integrated with skill

practice. Essential knowledge is learned to support the performance of skills.

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 • Methods of instruction involve mastery learning. The premise that all participants
can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and appropriate
training methods are used.

• Assessing Prior Knowledge. Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they
enter the program and those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may bypass
training or competencies already attained.

Lesson 11: Components and steps in the process of

OBT
Activity 11

 Dear trainees try to deal with these questions after you go through your readings of
the notes that are presented in the unit.

1. What are the five major components and the 16 steps involved in the process of a
CBT programme development?

2. Compare and contrast the traditional and CBT TVET systems?

3. How competence is understood in the industries?

4. How shall CBE be included in the curriculum?

5. Write 5 competency statements which can meet the standard for writing competency
statements.

The process of a CBT programme

CBT is an outcome-based learning system for developing curricula. CBT is, therefore, a form
of training that is specifically focused on achieving competence. Training is typically divided
into small units that are dedicated to the mastery of a specific competency, and articulated
together into more complex structures. Once students are able to demonstrate the mastery of a
given competency, they then proceed to the next unit.

CBT is replacing traditional training and learning methods, which are often undertaken
within a course or subject. These have tended to mostly focus on knowledge without the
mastery of real-life industry skills or any consideration for labour market performance.
Instead, CBT attempts to be market-relevant, since it is based on information about the needs

Page | xlv
of the labour market and, in return, signals to employers the available skills and
employability of jobseekers.

The process of a CBT programme has five major components designed around a total of 16
proposed steps to implement it. They are:

1: Identifying priority occupations

Step 1: Skills needs assessment
Step 2: Training needs analysis
2: Identifying competencies
Step 3: Identifying competencies using occupational analysis
Step 4: Verifying the occupational profile
Step 5: Developing competency standards
3. Developing competency-based training programmes
Step 6: Defining the curriculum
Step 7: Developing learning tools (learner guides, job sheets and lesson plans)
Step 8: Designing CBT for workplace-based learning
4. Delivering, assessing and certifying learners in CBT programmes
Step 9: Managing the administrative aspects of CBT
Step 10: Implementing effective learning strategies for CBT
Step 11: Managing the learning process (classroom management)
Step 12: Understanding and designing assessments
Step 13: Conducting final assessments and certifying learners
5. Keeping CBT programmes relevant
Step 14: Monitoring and evaluating CBT
Step 15: Conducting a programme validation study
Step 16: Undertaking graduate tracer studies and employer satisfaction surveys
The following diagram outlines the linkages between the five components and detailed steps
which shows the process of CBT. The steps are not necessarily listed in a strict sequence, as
some are actually implemented simultaneously.

Page | xlvi
Figure 3. A process Map of CBT

Source: (ILO, 2020)

Comparison of traditional to CBT TVET

How is personalized, competency-based learning different than traditional learning? Below,

we illustrate key differences between learning focused on personalized mastery vs. a more
traditional approach to education, specifically in core areas such as school culture, learning
continuum, learning pace, instruction, assessment and grading policies.

School Culture

In traditional education, learning happens inside a traditional classroom, little to no

accommodation of student interests or learning needs.

In personalized, competency-based learning, students have an equitable range of learning

experiences at school, online and in the community. Schools foster a sense of belonging,

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embrace growth mindset and the importance of relationships for meaningful, relevant
learning experiences.
Instruction

In traditional education, every classroom has one teacher who designs and delivers
instructional curriculum with very little differentiation.

In personalized, competency-based learning, educators work collaboratively with

community partners and students to develop a unique learning plan for each student based on
interests, learning needs and real-time data. Individual learning pathways accommodate
student interests and learning needs.
Assessment System

In traditional education, assessments at set times to evaluate and classify students. One
opportunity is provided to students to take the summative assessment at the end of the year.

In personalized, competency-based learning, a comprehensive assessment system is an

essential part of the learning system. Formative assessments guide daily instruction. Students
make partnership with their teachers to decide when and how to show what they’ve learned,
and they have multiple chances to demonstrate mastery.

College and Career Readiness

In traditional education, students are expected to master grade level college- and career-
ready standards.

In personalized, competency-based learning, students are expected to master competencies

aligned to college- and career-ready standards with clear, transferable learning objectives.
Learning Pace

In traditional education, students advance at educator’s pace regardless of mastery or

needing additional time.

In personalized, competency-based learning, students access customized supports both in-

school and out-of-school to ensure they get what they need, when they need it.

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Grading Policies

In traditional education, grades are norm-referenced, reflect course standards and are
typically based on weighted quarters and a final exam.

In personalized, competency-based learning, grades reflect the degree of mastery of

competencies. If students do not earn course credit, records indicate competencies that need
to be re-learned instead of the entire course.

The table below shows a comparison of Traditional and competency-based TVET in light of
additional parameters.

Table 1. Comparison of traditional to competency-based TVET

The Nature of Competency

Competency-Based Education is claimed to have been originated in the USA and UK. In
order to address the mismatch between the results of education and training and qualification
requirements of the demand side, competency based systems have been selected as the
approach to align the system of education and training with requirements of the demand side.
Presently Competency-Based Education is adopted in different sectors of industry and
technical and vocational education and training institutes, centers and schools.

Competencies define the applied skills and knowledge that enable people to successfully
perform their work. Competencies are relevant to an individual’s job responsibilities, roles
and capabilities.

Competency is the state or quality of being capable; it can also mean an ability or skill
possessed by an individual. Competence is concerned with what people can do rather than

Page | xlix
what they know. Competence involves possession and development of sufficient skills,
knowledge, appropriate attitudes and experience for successful performance in life roles.
Competence may refer to a specific set of skills necessary to carry out a particular job. It
could also include the qualities necessary to perform a wider occupational role.

Competency can be considered as the individual’s ability to use, apply and demonstrate a
group of related awareness, knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to perform tasks and
duties successfully and which can be measured against well-accepted standards (levels)
required in employment as well as assessed against provided evidences at work location.

Writing Competency Statements

Competency statement is a written phrase or sentence which communicates to students the

precise degree of skill or performance which is required for a particular occupational skill.

Competencies are short statements, up to a maximum of 250 words, defining the behaviour
and actions needed to perform well in a particular job. A complete list of competency
statements for a job title ideally represents detailed listing of the skills and knowledge which
are required for employment in that occupation.

Competency statements that are properly written for classroom or laboratory or workshop
instruction purposes should meet the following criteria:

 they should clearly describe the skill to be mastered

 they should specify how skill attainment is to be demonstrated to the instructor

 they should include a measurable standard

 they should be concise.

In short; a four-step method should be followed when writing competency statements:

• analyze each broad set of proficiencies that is associated with a job title and identify
clearly the skills to be mastered

• specify the conditions under which the student will demonstrate skill attainment

• assign measurable, entry level standards for each of the skills to be mastered

• combine all of the essentials into a single sentence

Using STAR to write competency statements

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We strongly recommend using STAR to help you structure your statements. It will also help
you to break down the writing of a 250 word example into four manageable chunks. Most of
your 250 words need to go on the A and the R parts of your example, as this is where most
sift points will be available.

Situation:

• This sets up your example for the sifter and provides the context for the actions you are
going to describe.

• It can include your job role, the circumstances, the resources available, the context, and
your responsibilities.

• It needs to be fairly short, but does need to allow the sifter to assess the complexity of the
task, your role and responsibilities, resources you had available and any challenges you faced.

Task:

• This is where you describe the task you needed to do to meet the objectives.

Action:

• This is where you will describe what you actually did in response to the situation and task.

• This is the most important part, as it is where most of sift points are awarded.

• Most of your 250 words should be used here.

Result:

• At the end of the statement you will need to explain what the outcome of your actions was
and why they were successful. If it wasn’t successful as it could have been you can explain
what lessons you learned and what you could have done to make it more so.

The following example shows how we write competency statements.

At the end of the training in a rough carpenter; the student will be able to ‘measure accurately
the dimensions of a structure as specified by the teacher (standard: 100 percent accuracy)
using a steel tape’.

Page | li
UNIT 3: FORMULATION OF OS AND
CURRICULUM PLANNING

About this unit

• This unit focuses on the essence of OS and the process of Setting OS and curriculum
planning in outcome-based education.

• The unit focuses on the different kinds of methodologies of task analysis used for
preparing occupational profiles for OS.

• The unit also presents in detail how the OS is translated in to Training Standard and
then to curriculum to guide the skill development process.

Unit learning objectives

• At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

• Analyze the relationship between vocational education and labor market

• Identify the stakeholders involved in setting Occupational Standards

• Classify the processes involved in setting Occupational Standards

• Demonstrate the skill of revising existing Occupational Standards or setting

anew

• Exhibit the skill of translating Occupational Standards in to curricula

• Analyze the effects of non-alignment between Occupational Standards and

curricula

Page | lii
Lesson 12: Vocational Education and the Labor
Market
Activity 12

 Dear trainees please attempt the following questions before you go through the
material

1. What does LMIS stand for?

2. How does a labor market and vocational education relate each other?

3. What functions does the LMIS have?

4. What is the importance of LMIS?

Introduction

One of the crucial stages in the development of relevant vocational programs deals with labor
supply and demand. The major thrust of vocational education is to prepare individuals for
employment and certainly for opportunities that actually exist. To be an effective curriculum
planner/occupation developer, one must be knowledgeable as to the different vocational
service areas and the occupations most closely related to those areas. The
curriculum/occupation planner/ developer must be open-minded as he/she goes about the job
of assessing the labor supply and demand.

Labor Market Policies

Labor is the primary income generating asset for the majority of a country‟s population. On
the other side, labor is one of the major production factors in all sectors of an economy. The
labor market is coordinating both the allocation of incomes and the allocation of labor as a
production resource. Distortions in the labor market are therefore affecting the well-being of
a large part of the society.

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Persistent unemployment creates individual and social costs. As people lose their resource for
living, some might drop below the poverty line and especially children suffer when their
parents are unemployed. Long times of unemployment lead to losses in human capital and to
psychological problems, like depression.

Bad job matching poses other problems for the growth of an economy. The productivity of a
worker and thereby of the company is reduced if the worker’s skills are not the ones needed
for the job he/she is exercising or his/her level of education and training is too low to perform
well. People with high skills who are only able to find low skilled jobs are equally less
productive, as they are in a way underemployed. Better quality matches do not only lead to
higher productivity but also tend to increase the worker’s and employer’s satisfaction and by
this the employment duration. The resulting lower labor turnover reduces the loss of skills
and the cost of hiring new workers.

Labor markets can be distorted because of many factors. Some of the major factors are list as
follows.

 Lack of information about job vacancies

 Lack of information about skills required by employers

 Mismatches of labor supply and labor demand discrimination

 Inadequate levels of labor market regulation.

The state can take an active role in improving the functions of the labor market by
implementing labor market policies. There are different policy instruments that can be used to
increase the effectiveness of job searchers concerning the cost, speed and quality of job
matches. Like in other markets, availability of information is essential for the function of the
labor market. Labor intermediation services like a labor market information system (LMIS)
reduce the job search costs for both workers and employers by improving the information
flow between the labor demand and supply sides concerning available jobs and skills needed.
A LMIS is also necessary to collect the labor market information governments need to
formulate adequate labor market policies. Once policies are implemented and institutions are
created, labor market information is necessary to monitor and evaluate these policies and the
performance of the institutions.

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As the structure and problems of labor markets vary from country to country, the functions
and forms of a LMIS have to be adapted according to the country’s requirements. There is no
general blueprint for the one and most effective LMIS.

The Relation between the Labor Market and Vocational Education

One of the crucial stages in the development of relevant vocational programs deals with labor
supply and demand. The major thrust of vocational education is to prepare individuals for
employment and certainly for opportunities that actually exist.

Labor market analysis (employers’ needs analysis) is a prerequisite for developing

occupational standards. Before embarking on development of OS, stakeholders need labor
market information (LMI) to provide early warning and identify priorities for standards
development in occupations. Analysis of LMI provides the starting point for in-depth
occupational analysis and standards development.

For developing countries with limited resources for development of standards, setting
priorities is very important. Standards organizations do not normally develop first-generation
LMI, but usually synthesize LMI that is available from multiple sources to define priorities.

Medium-term qualitative employer surveys can provide economic and employment

information in countries where other sources of data are not available. Standards
organizations do not normally get directly involved in implementing education and training
programs, and thus do not need LMI demand/ supply information for the same reason as
education and training institutions.

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 (a) Labor (b) (c)
(d) Training (e) Training
Market Occupational Assessment
Standards Delivery
Information Standards Standards

Figure 4. Relation between labor market and vocational education

What is a Labor Market Information System?

The LMIS is an active labor market policy instrument that collects, evaluates and provides
labor market information to both the labor supply and the labor demand side. The
implementation of a LMIS is aimed at the following strategic targets:

 nationwide transparency concerning supply and demand on the markets for labor and
vocational training

 fast access to job offers and job requests, acceleration of the matching process by fast
access to job offers and job requests for both employers and job-searchers

 use of all available possibilities to support labor market functions

 uncomplicated and red-tape-free ways of communicating offers and notices

Importance of LMIS

The LMIS helps to reduce the information deficit on the labor market, so the labor market
can work better.

 If people do not have information about job openings, they may stay unemployed.

 If people do not have information about professions, they may choose a profession where
there is no demand for workers.

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 If more persons find jobs, their income increases and therefore the general wellbeing of the
society increase.

 If more persons make the right job choice and companies get the right workers, productivity
increases.

Figure 5 shows an optimal labor market with a perfect information flow between job
searchers, employers offering jobs and the institutions offering training and qualification
programs. This would be the case if each of the three parties had complete and immediate
information about the supply and demand of the other two parties. This idealistic labor
market does not exist in any country of the world. Instead, we can observe that the
information flow is poor and in some cases completely interrupted as shown in Figure 6. The
implementation of a LMIS can reduce the information deficit by identifying the blocked
channels and providing the missing information, see figure 7.

Figure 5. Optimal Labor Market

Figure 6. Labor Market with information deficit

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Figure 7. Functions of LMIS

The LMIS in the field of labor market policy instruments

Labor market policies are a government’s instruments to influence the function of the labor
market by reducing occurring distortions. They shall lead to a flexible labor market that is
able to adapt in appropriate time to changes in labor demand. They also shall reduce the
social costs of unemployment.

Labor market policies are divided into two major groups (for more, refer Figure 5).The first
group contains instruments like the LMIS which actively influence the flow of information
and thereby the matching process, Training and qualification programs and subsidized
employment programs are two other types of active labor market policy instruments. This
category of labor market policies is called active labor market policy.

In contrast to the active instruments, passive labor market instruments have the purpose to
prevent unemployed individuals from falling below the poverty line and to allow for a more
effective job search by providing benefits. In some countries, benefits are paid by the
unemployment insurance; others additionally have unemployment assistance programs. In
some countries, none of these programs exist and sometimes a social security system takes
over the functions of passive labor market policy instruments.

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Figure 8. Labor Market Policy Information

The Functions of the LMIS

The LMIS may have different functions, according to the requirements of the national labor
market. Generally, the following functions are associated with the LMIS.

1. To improve job placement and matching

2. To provide information on professions and training

3. To help people to develop a job profile and to develop skills for searching and
applying for jobs

4. To collect and evaluate information necessary for governments to be able to formulate

labor market policy and to identify focus groups.

1. The Job placement and Matching Function of the LMIS

Job placement is one of the core labor market intermediation services provided by the LMIS.
By providing a pool of job market information, both employers and unemployed have easy
access to labor market information.

 Individuals searching for a job can find information on existing vacancies and the
requirements for the jobs offered.

 Employers have access to information about individuals searching for a job and their
personal skills.

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The efficiency of the job placement service relies on the existence of a database containing as
well information about vacancies as information about the professional profile of job seekers.
The data has to be as recent as possible. The more vacancies and seekers are registered in this
database, also across regions, the more effective the job matching may be performed as the
probability of encountering the right worker for the right vacancy increases. The maintenance
of this database is quite labor intensive but crucial for the functioning of the job placement
service. Additionally, the staff using the registry has to be skilled in finding good matches. A
badly maintained database with obsolete, invalid or erroneous information will deter
employers from posting further job offers and searching individuals from requesting the
service.

2. Improving the Information Flow

The LMIS is in a good position to collect and evaluate labor market data as it provides a
central market place where individuals can offer their labor force and provide information
about their skills and employers can offer their vacancies and provide information about
working conditions, hiring requirements and skills needed. If no national employment survey
is installed, the LMIS may be the primary source for labor market information.

The central collection and provision of information reduces the search costs for employers
and job searchers equally. The easy access to this information is a crucial factor for the
reduction of costs. The different ways the access may be provided is therefore very important
for the acceptance of the LMIS by both job searchers and employers.

3. General Information on the Different Professions

The job placement service is most efficient for job searchers who already have exercised a
profession, who probably received a profound training for it and wish to continue within this
profession. But for other groups of searchers like to exercise is for less obvious. Individuals
belonging to this target group need to start one step earlier by first identifying the area they
would like to work in. To do so, they need more general information on the professions
offering an income generating future for them. They will need answers to the following
questions.

 What are the requirements and skills necessary to work in a specific profession?

 Which professions are existent for different levels of education?

Page | lx
 What are the wages in the different sectors?

 Which areas of the economy are growing so that the probability of finding a job is good?

 What are new areas and new professions, for example in the service sector or in the
information technology sector?

Next to the general information on the professions, the job searchers will usually need
additional information about the possibilities to obtain the skills needed for the specified
professions. This leads to another kind of labor market information and LMIS should provide
information on vocational training and qualification programs.

4. Information on Vocational Education and training

Persistent youth unemployment is a problem occurring in many countries, and youth

unemployment levels frequently are much higher than those of adults. In some countries, this
is not apparent at first glance as many young people take up poor quality jobs in the informal
sector.

Providing information on vocational training possibilities like courses offered by public or

private training organizations is therefore an important function of the LMIS. This type of
service is usually aimed at young adults and all individuals wishing to enter the labor market
for the first time. But sometimes also workers who were occupied before in professions that
are not requested anymore wish to restart their career in a completely different professional
field and need information on vocational training.

Next to the general information on professions, young people and newcomers will need
special information on how to enter the labor market. This can be done as follows.

 Information on schools for professional education

 Information on public courses for vocational training

 Information on companies offering job openings for beginners

 Which professions are existent for different levels of education?

 What are the requirements to be able to exercise that profession?

5. Information on Qualification Programs

Unemployed individuals with work experience may have special requirements to be able to
find a new job which can be done as follows.

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 If their former profession is not demanded anymore;

 If they cannot work in their old profession anymore because of physical problems;

 If they are unemployed for a longer time and need to refresh their skills.

Information on qualification programs and public and private providers of such training
programs helps these job seekers to improve their chances to return to the labor market.
Further questions of this group of job seekers generally are as follows.

 Which qualification programs are suitable for what kind of profession?

 Which qualification programs are existent for different levels of education?

 In which sectors is demand for workers?

 What are the requirements to be able to participate in the training?

 If a government funded program, when does a person qualify?

Providing information on training and qualification programs gets more and more important
as the speed of technological progress is constantly increasing. Individuals trained for a
certain profession cannot anymore expect to exercise this specific profession during their
whole working life without further training. Additionally, the growing international
integration generates more volatile markets with larger and sometime less foreseeable
changes in the demand for products and services. These fluctuations lead to increased
structural changes in the national labor demand, as firms move in and out of the market. The
ability to adapt relatively quickly to changes in the demand for skills reduces unemployment
and social losses.

Lesson 13: Occupational Standards

Activity 13
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  Dear trainees please attempt the following questions before you go through the
material

1. What does Occupational Standard mean?

2. Why do we need occupational standards?

3. What is the significance of Setting Occupational Standard?

The Meaning of Occupational Standards

Occupational standards are precise descriptions of what an individual is expected to be able

to do in his/her work role. They are defined in terms of ideal benchmarks against which
competence is assessed and certification granted. Occupational standards describe the skills
and knowledge needed to perform competently in the workplace. Occupational standards
define the competences of a worker according to requirements in the labor market.
Occupational standards comprehensively describe the competence a person has to achieve in
order to be considered “qualified” in a certain field. Competence includes the entire range of
skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary to perform a specific job.

Occupational standards can also be defined based on their purposes. They define the main
roles and responsibilities within an area of work by:

 giving a clear description of what an employee needs to do to perform their job successfully
 giving a detailed breakdown of any tasks, skills and knowledge that someone needs to
possess for this position

 including information on any statutory or legal responsibilities associated with the position

Occupational standards offer a framework for good employment practices by:

 comparing your workforce’s performance to nationally developed benchmarks of good

practice

 describing what needs to be done in a role

 being outcome based so they do not tell you or your workforce how to achieve goals, but
rather what the outcomes should be

Purposes of Occupational Standards

Occupational standards specify the standard of performance an individual must achieve when
carrying out a function in the workplace, together with the knowledge and understanding they

Page | lxiii
need to meet that standard consistently. Essentially occupational standards are benchmarks of
good practice. Each occupational standard defines one key function in a job role. Hence, each
occupational standard must be a concise and readable document. In their essential form,
occupational standards describe functions, standards of performance and
knowledge/understanding.

Although occupational standards are often used to build qualifications and training programs,
sectors, organizations or individuals can use them as the platform for almost any other aspect
of human resource management and development, for example in:

 workforce planning;

 performance appraisal and development systems;

 job descriptions;

 workplace coaching;

 reflective practice and continuing professional development

Furthermore, occupational standards are criteria for different purposes. Occupational

standards are the criteria intended to enable designers of occupational standards and
developers of vocational qualifications to meet the needs of employers and other potential
users. Purposes of occupational standards can be at the industry, employer, and employee
levels.

Occupational standards help industries to:

 recruit, develop and maintain a skilled workforce;

 ensure that occupational requirements are equitable;

 increase competitiveness and productivity;

 facilitate mobility of labor within the region/country;

 identify and communicate human resources and training needs;

 upgrade employee skills;

 design assessment and evaluation guidelines;

 develop accreditation/certification process;

 enhance corporate image;

Page | lxiv
 as checklists of what needs to be done and understood;

 as the basis for, or as part of, learning programs;

 as the basis for, or as part of, qualifications;

 as benchmarking tools to ensure consistency of practice;

 for quality assurance programs to ensure quality of service; etc.

Occupational standards help employers to:

 increase productivity;

 improve quality of goods and services;

 reduce costs for recruitment by facilitating the selection of new employees;

 provide a means for better human resources planning;

 help effective skills upgrading; etc.

Occupational standards help employees to:

 Identify skills and knowledge needed for occupations;

 provide a reference to assess ability and training needs;

 identify and support clear career paths;

 provide guidelines for certification or accreditation;

 increase mobility within industries;

 act as a benchmark for rewarding experience, knowledge and competence; etc.

Characteristics of Occupational Standards

Occupational standards must:

 identify the main roles and responsibilities within a defined occupational area

 take the form of units based on the occupational roles and responsibilities identified

 show the outcomes of competent performance including the essential knowledge and
understanding required;

 show the standard of occupational competence to be reached for the stated outcomes. In this
context competence means the ability to apply knowledge, understanding, practical and

Page | lxv
thinking skills to achieve effective performance, to the standards required in employment.
This includes solving problems and being sufficiently flexible to meet changing demands

 include relevant technical, planning and problem solving skills, the ability to work with
others, the ability to apply knowledge and understanding and other skills which will enhance
flexibility in employment and promotional opportunities;

 ensure that the competence is broad enough to give flexibility in employment and be
capable of adaptation to meet new and emerging occupational patterns;

 include any legal obligations. The most obvious areas in which legal requirements will
influence statements of competence are the requirements and responsibilities imposed on
individuals and organizations such as health and safety or age constraints, legal constraints
affecting specific occupational practice, such as confidentiality, and the giving of advice or
disclosure, and implications of someone not complying with legal requirements.

 include any health and safety requirement

 include any relevant environmental aspects which are critical to competence

 include any relevant occupational characteristics which are ethical, creative or value based
 be written in plain language and in a format which is easily understood by those who will
use the standards

 be free from any overt or covert discrimination against an individual either in the wording
or content

 provide a satisfactory basis for assessment

 meet the needs and have the support of all significant groups of employers and potential
users

 reflect best employment practice, benchmarked against international standards where

appropriate

Managing Occupation Standards

Managing is concerned with directing, handling with skill, controlling of practices, workers,
or in this topic, occupational standards. Managing occupational standards means planning the
formulation of occupational standards, directing and controlling expertise who are going take
part in the preparation and the procedures they are going to follow and why, determining the
depth and breadth of occupations and their respective standards including other resources
Page | lxvi
useful for the implementation. Furthermore, the manager who is responsible to occupational
standards should:

 communicate intentions-why, what, how, when, etc.

 evaluate practices in the process of formulation OSs

 learn from the practices

 obtain feedback from different stakeholders

 plan activities-why, what, how, who, …

 reflect on what is done- identify strengths and

 review practices, improve

 conduct self-assessment-what is done and not

 set objectives-what shall be done next, and so on.

Figure 9. Linkage between Occupational Standards and Curriculum

Source: (Ministry of Education, 2011)

Page | lxvii
Lesson 14: Occupation Development and
Occupational Profile in TVET
Activity 14

 Dear trainees please attempt the following questions before you go through the
material.

1. What is occupational profile?

2. What could be the possible sources of information to determine occupational profile?

3. What tools can be used for gathering information?

Definition of Occupational Profile

 Occupational profile refers to the determination of the conceptual knowledge, skills, and the
tools a worker/a professional is expected to possess

 It is the major roles and tasks of the professional and the competencies that it requires for
optimal functioning.

Why do we determine occupational profile?

Occupational profile helps to indicate the relevance of the designed training programs to the
world of work; its relevance with respect to national development priorities and programs
being up-to-date and future proof.

Needs Analysis

Also called as needs assessment or diagnosis of needs or situation analysis is the collection of
data about the school; the nature of the learners; the teachers; the society; etc. Needs are gaps
between what it is and what ought to be.

Sources of Occupational Profile

 The job market

 National and regional development plans

 Alumni

 Professional associations and end users

 Observe professional, etc. OR;

Page | lxviii
Areas of Needs Assessment

 Analysis about the school system:

Basic demographic and statistical information: focuses on number of schools and their
distribution; enrolment and flow through the system such as age, class size, staff, financial
allocation; etc. Legal and Administrative Information: deals with the current legal provision
and requirements, policies, and practices with respect to school building, equipment, supply,
time allocation, etc. Current Curriculum Practice: include origins, the language(s) in use,
timetables actually followed, program covered, subjects taught, etc.

 Analysis about the learners’ Information:

Social and Cultural Backgrounds: patterns of learning, norms, values and customs, games,
songs and stories, work and duties, etc. Language and Perception: languages used, spoken
and understood, relation of mother tongue to language of instruction, to content and demands
of the curriculum Visual Perception of children in relation to materials used Cognitive
Development: ability to comprehend ideas and processes in relation to the demands of syllabi
Interests and Aspirations of Learners Physical and psychomotor developments

 Analysis about the Teachers

Teachers’ education and training; interests and aspirations; and relations among teachers; and
between teachers and the community

 Analysis about the Community

Resources for learning; values and attitudes; needs and goals; expectations of employers; and
cultural and social changes.

Sources of Data for Needs Assessment

 Politically influential individuals

 Students

 Teachers

 Academic specialists

 Employers

Page | lxix
 Graduates

 Public representatives, Community Agencies, Interest Groups, Frontier leading thinkers,

etc. Instruments/Tools of Data Collection

 Questionnaires

 Interviews

 Public hearings-community meetings

 Social indicators- statistical evidence on employment, health, consumption, etc.

 Observation

Formulation of Objectives

Definitions and Uses of Educational Objectives

An educational program, like any activity, is directed by the expectations of certain

outcomes. The chief activity of education is:

 to change individuals in some way

 to add to the knowledge they poses

 to enable them to perform skills

 to develop certain understandings, insights, and appreciations These expected/desired

outcomes are usually called educational objectives.

Educational objectives are criteria by which materials are selected, contents are outlined,
instructional procedures are developed, tests and examinations are prepared. Educational
objectives are of two sorts:

 those that describe school- wide outcomes

 those that are more specific and describe behaviors to be attained in a particular unit,
subject/ course, or a particular grade level Uses of educational objectives are

 objectives force teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished

 enable teachers to communicate to students what they must achieve

 simplifies evaluation

 makes accountability possible

Page | lxx
 makes sequencing easier

 provides an orientation to the main emphasis in educational programs

 objectives guide the making of curriculum decisions on what to cover, what to emphasize,
what content to select, and which learning experiences to stress, etc Sources of Objectives

 How are objectives obtained?

 Are they not simply matters of personal preference of individuals or groups? According to
Tyler (1949), objectives stem from three sources:

 Students

 Society

 Subject matter specialist

After numerous educational objectives are identified, they will be refined/ filtered through
two screens

 The educational and social philosophy of the school

 The psychology of learning

Studies of the learners themselves as sources of educational objectives

According to Tyler (1949), the curriculum worker begins his/her search for educational
objectives by gathering and analyzing data relevant to student needs and interests. The total
range of needs- educational, social, occupational, physical, psychological, and recreational- is
studied. How? This can be done through observations by teachers, interview with students,
interviews with parents, questionnaires, and tests as techniques for collecting data about
students. With this, the curriculum developer can identify a set of potential objectives.

Studies of Contemporary life outside the school as Source of Educational Objectives

Analysis of contemporary life in both the local community and in society at large according
to Tyler (1949), is the next step in the process of formulating general objectives. He
suggested that curriculum planners develop a classification of scheme that divides life into
various aspects such as health, family, recreation, vocation, religion, consumption and lots of
others. From the needs of society flow many potential educational objectives, that is, after
considering this second source, the curriculum worker has lengthened his/her set of
objectives.

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Suggestions of Subject- Matter Specialists as Sources of Educational Objectives

School and college textbooks are usually written by subject specialists and largely reflect
their views, conception of objectives that the school should attempt to attain. But many
people have criticized the use of subject specialists on the grounds that the objectives they
propose are too technical, too specialized or in other ways are inappropriate for a large
number of school students. The reason behind, may be, these subject matter specialists have
not been asked the right questions. Hence it is so much important to raise general questions
as:

• What can your subject contribute to the education of students who are not going to be
specialists in your field?

• What can your subject contribute to the layman? etc

If subject matter specialists can present answers to such questions, then they can make an
important contribution to strengthening the set of objectives to curriculum workers.

Note: Once this array of possible applicable objectives is determined, a screening process is
necessary so as to eliminate unimportant and contradictory objectives. Nevertheless, how can
it be done?

Philosophical screen

Tyler advised teachers of a particular school to formulate an educational and social

philosophy. He urged them to outline their values by emphasizing:

• The recognition of the importance of every individual human being as a human being
regardless of his race, national, social or economic status

 Opportunity for wide participation in all phases of activities in the social groups in the
society.

 Encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of personality.

 Faith in intelligence as a method of dealing with important problems rather than depending
upon the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group.

Hence, the school committed to the educational and social philosophies and when the school
accepts these values, many schools are likely to state. Finally the curriculum worker will
review the list of general objectives and omit those that are not in keeping with the faculty’s
agreed upon philosophy.

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Psychological Screen

To apply this screen, teachers must clarify the principles of learning that they believe to be
sound that help to outline:

• The nature of the learning process

• How it takes place

• Under what conditions

• What sorts of mechanisms operate, etc.

Effective application of this screen presupposes adequate training in educational psychology

and in human growth and development by those charged with the task of curriculum
development. Significances of the psychological screen to curriculum workers include the
following.

 Knowledge of the psychology of learning enables to distinguish changes in human beings

that can be expected to result from a learning process from those that cannot.

 Knowledge of the psychology of learning enables to distinguish goals that are feasible from
those that are likely to take a very long time or are almost impossible of attainment at the age
level contemplated.

 Psychology of learning gives some idea of the length of time required to attain an objective
and the age levels at which the effort is most efficiently employed. After the curriculum
worker has applied this second screen, his /her list of general objectives will be reduced;
select only those that are the most significant and feasible ones.

Strategies of Occupation Development

Various methods have been proposed for obtaining appropriate contents for different
curricula including vocational curriculum and thereby to the development of different
occupations. Hence, it is important to note that a curriculum worker shall not be restricted
only to one method rather use more than one method so that one can serve as a check for the
other. Some of the methods are:

 Introspection,

 Job/Task analysis,

 DACUM,

Page | lxxiii
 Functional Analysis, and

 Delphi

1. The Introspection Method

This starts with an examination of existing curricula/occupation and the literature related to
these such as evaluation reports. It may be undertaken by an individual by a group. Then
contents will be obtained from the experiences of those who have implemented previous
related curricula.

2. The Job/Task Analysis Method

As its name suggests, this method is concerned with working out just what is required of
employees/trainees in any given aspect of their occupation. The essential feature of this
method is that someone (not necessarily a teacher) collects and interprets information about
the job which is then fed to curriculum developers. This task analysis is essentially concerned
with the determination of the knowledge and skills required for a particular job.

Figure 9. Job/Task Analysis

3. DACUM (Develop A Curriculum) Method

DACUM (Develop A Curriculum) comes from North America (USA/Canada). DACUM is a

handy, efficient, and low cost method for the development of occupational profiles.

Page | lxxiv
Experiences in more than 30 countries worldwide give proof of the acceptance of the method
and the reliability of the results. Within a short period of time and at justifiable costs, this tool
offers tailor-made occupational profiles as a basis for the development of job descriptions,
training programs, assessment, and certification instruments. DACUM is based on a
philosophy working on the following assumptions:

 Expert workers are better able than anyone else to describe their occupation. This is
particularly true when working as a team under the methodical guidance of a trained
facilitator.

 An occupational skill can be described effectively in terms of duties, tasks and steps
successful workers perform.

 Successful task performance is directly related to the knowledge, skills, tools, and attitudes
that workers must possess to perform the tasks correctly.

How Is DACUM Applied?

A carefully chosen group of about 8-10 experts from the occupational area forms the
DACUM committee. Committee members are recruited directly from business, industry, or
the professions. The committee works under the guidance of a facilitator for two days to
develop the DACUM chart. Modified small-group brainstorming techniques are used to
obtain the collective expertise and consensus of the committee. The DACUM committee is
carefully guided through each of the following steps by the facilitator:

 Orientation

 Review of job or occupational area description

 Identification of general areas of job responsibility

 Identification of specific tasks performed in each of the general areas of responsibility

 Review and refinement of task statements

 Sequencing of task statements

 Identification of general knowledge and skill requirements of the occupation, tools,

equipment, supplies, materials used, desirable worker traits, and attitudes.

 Other options, as desired (that is, identification of entry level tasks).

Page | lxxv
Figure 10. DACUM Tree

4. Functional Analysis

Functional Analysis is a technique used to identify the labour competencies inherent in a

productive function. Such function may be defined at the level of an occupational sector, an
enterprise, a group of enterprises or a whole sector of production or services.

Functional analysis may be developed with different initial levels: an occupational sector
(hotel); mainstream occupations at various sectors (occupational safety and health); or
an occupation (PC repairman).

Functional analysis is a working approach to the required competencies by means of a

deductive strategy. It begins by establishing the main purpose of the productive function or
service under study and then questions are asked to find out what functions need to be
performed in order for the previous function to be achieved. Ideally, this is carried out on a
group of workers who are familiar with the function object of the analysis. Its worth as a tool
comes directly from its representative quality.

Functional analysis becomes the basis for the creation of not only competency standards, but
also training programmes. The method of functional analysis is the first stone in the creation

Page | lxxvi
of labour competency standards. As such, it is in the root of the description of the
occupational areas that are the object of standardisation.

Figure 11. Functional Map

5. The Delphi Method

This method has certain similarities with DACUM but also certain major differences. While
DACUM involves group interaction, Delphi tries to avoid allowing participants have too
much influence on each other.

Delphi involves consultation through structured communication that is; a questionnaire

concerning curriculum content in their field is sent to experts/ workers in the occupational
area. These questionnaires are returned to the co-coordinator who then circulates a summary
of the opinions expressed by all the participants. Each participant is then invited to review
this list and to rate items inorder of their importance to the curriculum.

Page | lxxvii
Figure 11. The Delphi Process Map

Lesson 15: Modular Approach to Curriculum

Development
Activity 15

 Dear trainees please attempt the following questions before you go through the
material.

6. What does modular approach to curriculum development mean?

7. What are the major Types of Modules?

8. What are the Components of Modular Approach to Curriculum Development?

9. How is the Modular Approach to Curriculum Development Structured?

Introduction

Page | lxxviii
Curricula can be developed in different ways (conventional and modular) for different
purposes (short terms certificates, diplomas, degrees, or for higher degrees). In this short
article, a modular approach, a general perspective, different components, different structures,
advantages, and its disadvantages will be considered. Necessary steps will be illustrated so as
to help readers get the message/technique of curriculum development in modular approach.

The Meaning of Modular Approach to Curriculum Development

The term module or modularization, according to Gerds (2002), is originally derived from
technology and engineering which is meant to combine different elements of an object, say a
building, in different ways. Module training, therefore, is the combination of different
training elements/modules on the building-block principle. Each module/unit produces a
qualification in a specified job. In the construction of the object, building, combination of the
different elements makes the job a very effective way of reducing costs, designing and
correcting objects, buildings. That is, modules can be produced and stored in a big number
for different applications, and cost of updating can be reduced by replacing only the damaged
module.

A module, according to Petrina (in press), is an individualized learning package which is self-
contained, independent unit of a planned series of learning activities designed to help the
student accomplish certain well-defined objectives. A module in technical and engineering
areas is employable and can be done for one duty complemented by modules from supporting
and general courses. However, for academic subjects, it is not employable though it may be
complemented by other modules in the supporting and general courses and it can be done for
a single course. Module approach in engineering, vocational, or in the academics is employed
so as to deliver a more student-centered approach to the instructional process. Hence, in this
short article, module can be understood as a systematic document for a job, duty or course
that clearly shows each of its elements: the units, objectives, contents, suggested
methodology and resources (time, materials, and references), and evaluation mechanisms.

Types of Modules

Modules can follow different forms based on the purposes of training and certificates that
will be awarded to successful completers of the program. Most of the time, the types can be
freestanding or clustered.

Freestanding modules are prepared for short course and work place assessed gaps. For
instance, if workers in an industry lack some sort of skill in assembling or in the

Page | lxxix
disassembling of the different parts of a machine, then a module that will help to alleviate this
problem will be prepared (a module in technology). Or, if teachers have problems on the
methods of teaching, test construction skills, or in curriculum evaluation, then a module can
be prepared for each of these training areas in alleviating their problems (a module in the
academic sector). The training/education that will be provided using freestanding modules
helps to extend and enrich the curriculum for individuals after having completed their formal
education in training institutions and universities, helps graduates get employment, or helps
individuals to overcome/ minimize their deficiencies in particular areas in their practices
(ibid).

Clustered modules, as the name implies, involve the combination of different modules so as
to conduct initial training/education in training institutions and universities in a particular
profession. For instance, the education of professional teachers involves three major modules
in the professional, specialized, and general knowledge. Each of the general modules can also
become a cluster of the different modules for the different courses.

Components of Modular Approach to Curriculum Development

Modular approach in curriculum development involves the analysis of different

elements/components. The main ones, according to MoE (1999), are summarized as follows.
Occupation: it is an employment area after one has gone through the educational/training
process.

Job: it is concerned to a set of duties and tasks that are meant to be executed. This is a result
of the analysis of the occupation. This will provide clarified work elements that constitute a
given job. That is, after education, graduates will have different job opportunities.

Duty: it is concerned with the breaking down of a job, usually referred to as the job
descriptions of a post. Each duty represents an achievement or result that an organization
seeks to attain. That is, duty is the responsibilities of a worker in a certain working area.

Task: it is concerned to the specific meaningful units of work or the smallest part of a job
that produces valued output. It is concerned to one’s action in the discharge to his/her duties.
Tasks shall be thoroughly analyzed so as to define the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed
for a particular job.

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Objectives: these describe what the student/trainee is expected to become at the end of the
training/education program. Objectives can be stated at different levels: general objectives at
the job and duty levels and specific at task level.

Contents: these are recommended concepts, procedures, or issues used for the realization of
objectives.

Pedagogical approach: it is concerned with the mechanisms of delivering contents like

demonstrations, group discussions, question and answer, field visits, etc.

Material means: these are resources that will facilitate student’s learning like visuals, audio,
or audio-visual materials. Reference materials for students’ further reading can also be
included under material resources.

Evaluation: this is an element used to check as how far students have mastered the
objectives designed for them to reflect at the end of teaching/training program. Equally, it is
also important to define the rationale for each occupation, job, duty, and task. Besides, it is
necessary to identify prerequisite skills and knowledge required to begin a particular module
for a particular duty.

Structure of Modular Approach to Curriculum Development

Modular curricula can be developed using a defined occupation or profession in the field.
This can be preceded by briefly defining the specific jobs for the occupation/profession,
specifying duties for each job of the occupation/ profession, determining clear tasks for each
duty of the occupation/profession, by listing required resources, and by recommending
pedagogical and evaluation strategies. This process is illustrated using Figure 12.

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Figure 12. Structure of a Modular Curriculum in Technical Area

Advantages and Disadvantages of Modular Approach to Curriculum Development

Every approach to curriculum development has its own values and limitations and so does the
modular approach to curriculum development.

Advantages

A modular approach to curriculum development is so helpful to promote studentcentered

learning models. This practice, according to Griffiths (2007) in Braun, Crable, and Sena
(2008), is so helpful to students‟ active participations in their learning. This is for the very
reason that clear objectives will be set; practical exercises/hands on activities to complement
module topics will be included; and lecture time will be limited in favor of projects, team
discussions, etc. It is also helpful to students to make decision about how and with the what
of they will learn. This is because students will be provided modules so that they can easily
access objectives, projects, assignments, how they can be assessed, and other necessary
requirements besides varieties of resources that will be made available to support and
facilitate their learning and hence, a student will be allowed to choose his/her favorite
resource for learning, complete assignments, etc.
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Besides, these types of pedagogical approaches, necessary resources and evaluation
mechanisms together with the required time are made clear for each specific task. Basically,
according to Petrina (in press), everything that the student needs is in the module. A module
provides for self-direction, or self-paced learning of a realm of content.

In the late 1980s and through the 1990s, modules became immensely popular in England and
the Scotland in a context of “flexible learning,” educators‟ response to flexible economics
(ibid). Currently, modules are a world-wide phenomenon and the preferred containers for
distance education via the world-wide web.

Modules are enormously popular and extremely important for anyone interested in the
development of digital learning resources and on-line learning. In technology studies, the
popularity of modular instruction increased throughout the 1990s. In 2001 in the US, for
instance, 72.5% of technology education programs in public schools were using teacher-made
modules and 48.5% use commercially vendor modules (Sanders, 2001 in Petrina, in press).
On top of these, according to Stolte (nd), there are various reasons for modularization of
curricula within the TVET sector:

 Greater flexibility in planning and organization of education and training programs

 Improved economic efficiency and effectiveness of education and training programs

 Greater adaptability to the needs of the labor market

 Greater adaptability to individual needs

 Real choice of personal through various learning and training implementation processes
that support the acquisition of professional qualifications for both vertical and horizontal
mobility.

Generally, modular based vocational education and training facilitates flexible delivery and
optimizes curricula utilization under demand-driven employment oriented aspects. It supports
cost-effective skill upgrading for existing workers, training and retraining of youth and the
unemployed, and emphasizes employability to ensure that training matches to the skill
requirements of industry and small businesses in urban and rural areas. In addition, it
supports self-paced learning, promotes effective training at institutions, and on the job
training (ibid).

All these, I assume lighten the teacher’s work in preparation and in teaching. Particularly, it
seems so helpful to novice teachers who are assumed to have problems in the statement of

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objectives, choice on the methods/techniques of teaching, identification of resources, and on
the evaluation mechanisms. Gives clear direction for teachers to prepare their own teaching
notes based on the recommendation for each specific task. The modular approach to
curriculum development can be used for any area of education and training (examples 1and
2) and it can be applied to any level of learning-teaching process including higher learning in
universities, like example 2 presented above. However, it seems much appropriate Technical
and Vocation Education and Training, TVET, than to academic areas. A student who
successfully completed one module can go for employment (if it is an employable one) and
can continue his/her study from the next module upon return after some years. Shortly, the
modular approach to curriculum development is a good means for result-oriented
teaching/training programs.

Disadvantages

Despite the fact that a more common view of the advantages of modularization, there are
some controversial views about the following components that make up an overall modular
systematic approach:

 Standard settings, especially in reference to details and desired level

 Assessment procedures, testing and certification of modular structured training Programs

 The issue of modularity versus stability- a modular approach offers the advantage of rapid
changes in meeting specific demands of employer needs, but at the same time may conflict
with the need for coherent and well-defined competencies, which are stable but slow to
change (ibid).

Besides, I have the uncertainty that the modular approach to curriculum development seems
to make teachers and students mechanical (all the time, similar procedures which may lead
them to fed-up with the routines) and limits their creativity, the recommended
methods/techniques of teaching may not be familiar to the teacher, allocated time may get
much or less, and resources recommended may not be available or accessible in all the
situations, especially in less developed countries like Ethiopia, and so on. Besides, successful
completion of a module in academic disciple may not allow a drop-out /needy student get
employment though the student can have the right to resume his/her studies from the module
he/she has stopped.

Main Characteristics of Modular Approach

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In the debate concerning the benefits of modularization, some central issues concerning its
usefulness for certain categories of beneficiaries are common to those of the Modules of
Employment-Oriented Training, MET, concept and its characteristics are described as
follows.

Trainees with different levels of experience can enter the modular training program at the
stage which is most appropriate for them - that is ‚flexible entry/ exit.

 Trainees who are quick to learn, or already have some specific job experience, may be able
to skip some of the modules, thereby cutting down the total time required for the program.
Special tuition or self-study (learner-based) programs may be used to help trainees skip
certain modules.

 Trainees who drop out of the modular approach prematurely can receive a certificate or
skills passport which states clearly what qualifications they have. This certificate or skills
passport will give them a better chance of obtaining a job than a trainee of a traditional course
who drops out, because the flexible entry/exit structure of the modular approach enables the
trainees to re-enter the modular training programs later, at an advanced stage.

 Prolonged periods of absence or learning problems in specific fields can be remedied by

repeating the relevant module. Instead of dropping out, trainees can improve their knowledge
in that field.

 Before entering the modular approach, trainees are requested to take an entry test to check
their knowledge and skills in order to ensure that they enter the appropriate module. This
allows the determination of the optimal training stage, the possibility of reducing training
time, and improving the cost-effectiveness of training programs.

 The modular approach embraces the use and/or adaptation of existing appropriate training
materials and trainee-centered learning modules that allow for a high degree of self-paced
learning.

 Learning places are no longer traditional workshops or classrooms, but become a hybrid
facility containing practical areas or learning stations, learning resources and study places.

 Experiences in several countries show that the modular systematic approaches in re-training
programs are extremely effective and efficient. The average pass rate for all re-training
courses is around 90%.

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 Social partnership is a key element of the systems approach to MET implementation, in
order to ensure employability and work for decent jobs (ibid).

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