CBSE 12th Physics Physics Chapter 1 Electric Charges and Fields

Class 12 Notes

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE

Charge is that property which is associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electrical
and magnetic effects.
There exists two types of charges in nature. They are:

i. Positive charge

ii. Negative charge

Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other while charges with opposite electrical sign attract each
other.

1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Substances that allow electricity to pass through them easily are called
‘conductors’. Metals, human and animal bodies, earth, etc. are examples of
conductors.
Insulators do not easily allow the passage of electricity through them.
Non-metals e.g., glass, plastic, and wood are ‘insulators’.
1.4 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
● Additivity of charges
● Charge is conserved
● Quantisation of charge
1.5 COULOMB’S LAW
If two stationary and point charges Q1 and Q2 are kept at a distancer, then it is found that force of attraction
or repulsion between them is Mathematically, Coulomb's law can be written as

Where k is a proportionality constant.

1.6 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

The mutual electric force between two charges is given by Coulomb’s law. Experimentally, it is verified that
force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to
the other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other
charges. This is termed as the principle of superposition.

Consider q1, q2 and q3 as three charges of a system. Here, if the force on q1 due to q2 is denoted by F12.
All of electrostatics is basically a consequence of Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle.

1.7 ELECTRIC FIELD

A positive charge or a negative charge is said to create its field around itself. Thus space around a charge
in which another charged particle experiences a force is said to have electrical field in it.
1.7.1 Electric field due to a system of charges

1.8 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

The field lines follow some important general properties:

(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single charge, they may start
or end at infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any breaks.

(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did, the field at the point of intersection will not have a
unique direction, which is absurd.)
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.

1.9 ELECTRIC FLUX

The total number of electric field lines passing a given area in a unit of time is defined as the electric
flux. Electric flux Δθ through an area element ΔS is defined by Δθ= E.ΔS= E ΔS cosθ

1.10 ELECTRIC DIPOLE

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q, separated by a distance 2a. The line
connecting the two charges defines a direction in space.
By convention, the direction from –q to q is said to be the direction of the dipole. The mid-point of locations of
–q and q is called the centre of the dipole.
1.10.1 The field of an electric dipole

The electric field of the pair of charges (–q and q) at any point in space can be found out from Coulomb’s law
and the superposition principle.
(i) For points on the axis

(ii) For points on the equatorial plane

1.11 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

If a dipole is placed in a uniform field such that dipole (i.e.p) makes an angle with direction of field then two
equal and opposite force acting on dipole constitute a couple whose tendency is to rotate the dipole hence a
torque is developed in it and dipole tries to align itself in the direction of field.
Consider an electric dipole in placed in a uniform electric field such that dipole (i.e.,p ) makes an angle with the
direction of electric field as shown.
Torque = pEsinθ = p x E
1.12 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
By the superposition principle, the total electric field due to the charge distribution is obtained by
summing over electric fields due to different volume elements:

1.13 GAUSS’S LAW

The total electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the net charge q enclosed by it divided by
ε0.
ϕ = q/ε0
Gauss's law is only applicable for a closed surface.

(i) Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.

(ii) The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface. The
charges may be located anywhere inside the surface.
(iii) In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges inside and some outside, the
electric field is due to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law,
however, represents only the total charge inside S.

(iv) The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the Gaussian surface. You may
choose any Gaussian surface and apply Gauss’s law. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface pass
through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due to a system of discrete charges is not well
defined at the location of
any charge. (As you go close to the charge, the field grows without any bound.) However, the Gaussian surface
can pass through a continuous charge distribution.
(v) Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the electrostatic field when the system has
some symmetry. This is facilitated by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
(vi) Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in the Coulomb’s

law.
Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate departure from the inverse square law.

1.14 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

1.14.1 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire
1.14.2 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
1.14.3 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

(i) Field outside the shell

For points outside the shell, the field due to a uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge of the shell is
concentrated at its centre.
(ii) Field inside the shell

The field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the shell. This important result is a
direct consequence of Gauss’s law which follows from Coulomb’s law.