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Building A Sustainable Future: An Experimental Study on Recycled Brick

Waste Powder in Engineered Geopolymer Composites
Article in Case Studies in Construction Materials · July 2024

DOI: 10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e02863
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Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02863
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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm
Building a sustainable future: An experimental study on recycled

brick waste powder in engineered geopolymer composites
Junaid K. Ahmed a, b, *, Nihat Atmaca a, Ganjeena J. Khoshnaw c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Kirkuk University, Kirkuk, Iraq
c
Department of Road Construction, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In light of the growing global issue of construction waste management, disposal, and environ
Engineered geopolymer composites mental impact, this study uniquely focuses on investigating the viability of recycled brick waste
Recycled brick waste powder powder (RBWP) as a replacement for conventional industrial wastes like ground granulated blast
Construction waste
furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA) for manufacturing engineered geopolymer composites
Ultra-tensile strain
Multiple cracking
(EGC). The EGC mixes was prepared by utilizing polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber with a 12 mm
Microstructural analysis length, and 40 micrometers were used. The classes F of FA and GGBS replaced by the RBWP in
EGC by 0%, 20%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. A total of 14 different EGC mixtures were
prepared. The flowability, initial and final setting times, density, compressive strength, direct
tensile strength, and tensile stress-strain diagrams of EGC were examined. A microstructural
characterization was carried out, involving the use of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) techniques. The results indicated that the inclusion of RBWP in the
FA-based EGC mixtures resulted in decreasing the flowability in terms of the extra usage of
superplasticizer from 0 to 6% and the initial and final set by about 90% and 91%, respectively.
Admittedly, there was a significant enhancement observed in the compressive strength, tensile
strength, and tensile strain capacity, with improvements of 25%, 29%, and 172%, respectively,
when RBWP completely replaced FA. However, the flowability, setting time, density, compressive
strength, and tensile strength of the EGC decreased when GGBS was completely replaced by
RBWP. However, there was a remarkable improvement in the ultimate tensile strain, which
increased by a factor of 11 compared to fully GGBS-EGC. Moreover, the microstructural char
acterization analysis revealed that the RBWP exhibited effective geopolymerization within the
EGC mixtures. These results demonstrate the interesting prospective application of RBWP as an
effective replacement for industrial wastes in the production of EGC.
1. Introduction
Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) is a unique category of high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites that
boasts superior ductility, with a level of tensile ductility that is 600–800 times greater than that of conventional concrete [1,2]. The
ingredients used in ECC, including ordinary Portland cement (OPC), sand, water, and admixtures, are similar to those used in
HPFRCCs. Moreover, ECC uses considerably fewer discontinuous fibers, often 2% or less by volume, resulting in a capacity of tensile
* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey.
E-mail address: Junaid.kamaran90@gmail.com (J.K. Ahmed).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e02863
Received 29 October 2023; Received in revised form 25 December 2023; Accepted 5 January 2024
Available online 10 January 2024
2214-5095/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J.K. Ahmed et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02863
strain up to 9% [3,4]. In contrast to conventional concrete, the typical mix design of ECC contains a substantially higher amount of
cement, with a content range of 830 to 1200 kg/m3, which typically requires 2.5 to 3 times more cement per cubic meter of concrete
than traditional concrete [5]. The use of a high quantity of cement in the ECC mix design is necessary for achieving matrix toughness
control, which results in strain-hardening behavior, and for controlling the rheology, which leads to easier fiber dispersion [6].
However, this higher cement content in ECCs negatively impacts their sustainability performance [7], because the cement production
sector of the construction industry has been known to be a significant source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions [8]. The CO2 emissions
generated per metric ton of cement production are estimated to be between 800 to 1000 kg, which makes it approximately 9% of the
world’s total CO2 emissions [9]. Many researchers tried to substitute cement with different waste materials in order to reduce the
Carbone footprint.
Concrete that incorporates industrial and agricultural wastes substituted for cement lowers its cement content and its carbon di
oxide emissions. Abdalla et al. [10,11] examined the durability and mechanical characteristics of concrete incorporate processed
sugarcane bagasse ash in proportions ranging from 10% up to 50% by weight of cement in a binder combines cement with silica fume
(SCBA). According to their findings, the mixture with 10% SCBA has the most mechanical strength, and adding more SCBA lowers the
amount of water absorption. Also, stability at temperatures as high as 600 ◦ C were noted.
Likewise, Nafees et al. [12] incorporated SF as a partial substitution of cement in concrete. Their study focused on developing
modeling techniques in predicting the compressive strength of silica fume concrete by including decision tree (DT) and support vector
machine (SVM). According to statistical evaluations of the study, DT models performed better in compressive strength prediction than
SVM. The results of ensemble modeling indicated an improvement in the DT and SVM compressive strength models of 11% and 1.5%,
respectively.
In the current construction industry, sustainability and environmental concerns are becoming increasingly important, especially
considering the carbon footprint and embodied energy of conventional concrete. Therefore, it is imperative to create eco-friendly ECCs
that preserve the material’s tensile ductility properties. To achieve this objective the OPC binder in the ECC mixture must entirely
replace with an alternative eco-friendly binder, like geopolymer.
The polymerization process, seen in Fig. 1. [13], is the chemical reaction that occurs between alkali poly silicate and alumino
silicates oxide. Alkaline solution (AS) and silica and aluminum source materials are used in the production of geopolymer concrete [14,
15].
It has been shown that the creation of fly ash based geopolymer composites, generates 80% fewer CO2 emissions and requires 60%
less energy when compared to traditional cement production [16,17].
Another advantage of geopolymer, is that different kind of waste can be utilized. For instance, Afonso et al. [18] evaluated the
physical and mechanical behavior of the contribution of glass polishing waste on the strength and durability of geopolymer mortars.
whereas a mixture of waste of glass polishing + NaOH in pearls, and molar ratio SiO2/Al2O3 = 2.5 and 3. The evaluation concluded
that the mixture with molar ratio of 2.5 and processed in the ambient cure, presented the minimum losses in mechanical strength and
mass.
Including fiber in geopolymer composites and concrete is the most efficient means of decreasing brittleness and improving
toughness, thereby preventing the spread of fractures. Carbon fibers [19,20], Steel fibers [21], polyvinyl alcohol fibers (PVA) [22–24],
polypropylene fibers [25], glass fibers [26], and basalt fibers [27], have all been employed in geopolymer composites. Huang et al.
[28] examined the hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete’s (HFRC) mechanical characteristics and the impact of the volume fraction for
carbon, polypropylene, and aramid fibers. The findings showed that the optimum hybrid impact on the tensile and flexural strengths
was exhibited by the HFRC with a fiber ratio of 25:50:25.
On the other hand, an impressive tensile strength, improved stress distribution, and a lower rate of cracking are all achieved by
incorporating natural fiber into concrete. Besides, Chen et al.[29] report that 85.7% of natural fiber concretes show notable
Fig. 1. Polymerization reaction [13,14].
2
environmental advantages.
PVA fibers are popularly used because of their high tensile strength, elastic modulus, and resistance to both alkali and acid [30]. Xu
et al. [31] have indicated that incorporating PVA fibers in the matrix of geopolymer can enhance the compressive strength of the
composite by a range of 40 to 70% depending on the quantity of added fiber. Studies have shown that incorporating a 2% volume of
PVA fibers greatly enhances the mechanical characteristics of geopolymer and cement composites, leading to an increase in ductility
with a strain-hardening pattern [6,32].
In a recent study conducted by Lee et al. [33], an engineered geopolymer composite (EGC) based on a slag-geopolymer binder was
developed. The results revealed that the EGC had numerous cracks and showed higher strength and resilience to deformation in both
uniaxial tension and bending tests. Subsequently, another study was carried out by Ohno et al. [34] to produce an EGC based on fly ash,
where the OPC binder was completely replaced with a fly ash-geopolymer binder. This study showed that the resulting EGC exhibited
behaviors of strain hardening and multiple cracking.
Lin et al. [35] studied the effect of PP fibers to partially or entirely replace PE fibers with ratios of (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%)
on the tensile behavior, and develops an economical hybrid PE/PP-EGC. the outcomes revealed that PE/PP-EGC with 50% replacement
has the highest ultimate tensile strain (9.71%), which is 68% higher than that of PE-EGC, while the tensile strength is only experienced
a 15% reduction.
Many studies [36–39] have demonstrated that the raw material of the binder has significant influence on mechanical and
strain-hardening performance of EGC. Of all raw materials, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA) are the most
widely utilized to manufacture EGC [40–43]. However, these materials are not available everywhere and have their own set of lim
itations. For example, FA-based geopolymer demands heat curing to achieve an appropriate level of early-age strength [44,45], while
the GGBS-based geopolymer has issues of poorly workable, fast setting, and high shrinkage, which can hinder its effectiveness as a
building material [46–48].
In the past few years, there has been an increased interest in incorporating locally available materials into the production of
traditional concrete, geopolymer concrete, ECC and EGC [49,50]. For instance, Singh et al. [51] investigated the fluidity, extrudability,
buildability, and strength of a concrete that was created using 3D printing and included up to 100% antimony tailings in order to
confirm its feasibility. The study’s findings demonstrated that 75% antimony tailings produced the strongest compressive and flexural
strength while still meeting printability requirements with superior strength.
Zhou et al. [52] developed a geopolymer based on simulant of lunar soil named Beihang (BH)− 1 and let it cure at lunar atmo
spheric simulation conditions. The findings demonstrated a 100.8% increase in the BH-1 geopolymer’s 28-day compressive strength
and a notable decrease in the overall amount of resources brought from Earth for the construction of lunar infrastructure.
And yet, limited studies have been conducted on concrete, ECC and EGCs manufactured by construction and demolition wastes
(CDW) like brick, ceramic, glass, and concrete wastes. On the other hand, it has been stated that every year, construction and de
molition activities generate over 10 billion tons of waste, accounting for 30% of all solid waste globally [53]. So investigating different
types of waste recycling in building materials and construction can be one of the most economical ways to get sustainably constructed
building materials [54].
When old brick-concrete structures are demolished due to the brisk pace of urban development and rebuilding, the waste clay
bricks are generated over 52 million tons annually, which presents a substantial problem for properly recycling these wastes [55].
Barreto et al. [56] assessed the high pozzolanicity of the clay ceramic waste (CCW) by manufactured concrete with addition of CCW
10% and 20% wt. The outcomes shown that CCW may successfully take the place of the pozzolan cement component in structural
concrete. Beside the pozzolanic property of brick, its compression strength is strongly correlated with water absorption [57].
Allahverdi et al. [58] studied the feasibility of using brick and concrete waste in various ratios to produce geopolymer concrete.
Their findings suggest that waste bricks are more effective for geopolymer reactions and showed promising results compared to waste
concrete. Also, Komnitsas et al. [59] examined varying the concentration of NaOH from 8 M to 14 M and curing the specimens at
temperatures ranging from 60 ◦ C to 90 ◦ C. The findings showed that the best compressive strengths were obtained at NaOH molarity of
8 M and a 90 ◦ C curing temperature, with values near 50 MPa. Along with this, Zaharaki et al. [60] investigated several construction
and demolition wastes geopolymer pastes cured at 80 ◦ C for 24 h, including mixtures made entirely of brick powder. After 7 days, the
brick-geopolymer specimens, which were created using a 10 M NaOH solution, attained a compressive strength of around 40 MPa. In
addition, some researches have been conducted on clay brick waste mortars, exploring the impact of varying the temperature of curing
from 20 to 100 ◦ C and the chemical composition of the alkali-reagent ( SiO2/Na2O or Na2O content) or/and the NaOH-solution
concentration [61–65].
Also, Robayo-Salazar et al. [53] explored the possibility of enhancing the mechanical performance of clay brick waste geopolymer
by adding OPC. The samples were cured at temperatures of 25 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C. The 100% red clay brick waste paste achieved a
compressive strength of around 54 MPa after 28 days of curing. Recently, a study by Lyu et al. [66] investigated the impact of replacing
natural aggregate with recycled fine brick aggregate, on the production of green, high-ductile geopolymer composites. An enhance
ment in fiber matrix bonding and bridging capabilities with a slight reduction in strength was observed. The achieved tensile strength
and ductility were 4.41 MPa and 4.27%, respectively, offering possibility in engineering applications.
This research aims to investigate two groups of industrial waste-EGC, (FA-EGC and GGBS-EGC) that incorporate components of
construction demolishing waste, namely recycled brick waste powder (RBWP) as a replacement for industrial wastes. Also, it attempts
to assess the fresh properties and hardened properties (flowability, setting time, density, compressive strength, direct tensile strength,
and tensile strain) for the produced EGC. In addition, the research includes a thorough examination of the microstructure through
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD).
3
2. Research significance
This research is significant for its capability to transform the construction industry ways by reducing construction waste, enhancing
material characteristics, and contributing to a more eco-friendly and sustainable construction industry. It tackles global challenges
complies with sustainability objectives, presents solutions for construction sector, and reduces reliance on traditional industrial by-
products. Implementing RBWP in EGC production has the potential to foster sustainable construction practices and contribute to
the circular economy, ultimately leading to a more environmentally friendly and resource-efficient construction industry.
3. Materials and experimental program
The methodology of the study is shown in a flow chart in Fig. 2.
3.1. Materials and mix proportions
A binder that is rich in alumina and silica plays a significant part in mechanical strength development. Therefore, selecting the
binder material become an interesting topic for many researchers. Fly ash (FA) class-F (Low calcium) and Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GGBS) were used individually in this research to produce EGC mixtures, and then both were replaced by recycled brick
waste powder (RBWP). The FA was provided by the Construction Chemical Manufacturing Company (EUROBUILD) and complies with
BS 3892 part 1 and BS EN 450, with a large portion that is predominantly less than 45 µm. At the same time, the GGBS complies with
BS6699 and was provided by the Mass Iraq Steel and Iron Plant in Iraq. Although the RBWP used in this research was sourced from
waste collection sites of demolished construction and the waste of fired clay brick factories.
The RBWP solid waste was initially crushed with a hammer to reduce the particle size to less than 10 cm, then ground into powder
form by using a Los Angeles abrasion machine for 30 min and thereafter sieved. Eventually, only passing sieve #200 (75 µm) powder
was collected that has approximately similar fineness as FA and GGBS.
The chemical properties of FA, GGBS, and RBWP were examined by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and presented in Table 1. The
chemical analysis reported that the Alumina (Al2O3) present in RBWP is higher than its value in GGBS, while the silicate (SiO2) values
were relatively close, as the values are 30.82% and 33.97% respectively. Also, the magnitude of calcium (CaO) in RBWP is more than in
FA. Furthermore, the distribution of particle size for the FA, GGBS, and RBWP was displayed in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 shows that the FA is the
finest precursor followed by RBWP then GGBS. The D50 for FA, RBWP, and GGBS were 8.20, 9.48, and 12 µm respectively, and ac
cording to [59], improved compression strength findings can be obtained with alkali-activated binders when particles with
Fig. 2. Methodology flow chart.
4
Table 1
XRF analysis of GGBS, FA, RBWP, and silica sand.
Chemical analysis Component concentration (wt%)
GGBS FA RBWP Silica sand
Al2O3 8.05 17.15 13.17 10.89

MgO 3.43 1.35 3.37 7.15
Na2O 0.06 0.002 0.02 0.17
SiO2 33.97 48.43 30.82 40.39
MnO 2.46 0.17 0.18 0.18
K2 O 0.58 0.42 1.19 0.88
P2O5 0.06 0.40 0.11 0.08
SO3 1.02 0.82 0.34 1.50
CaO 38.68 15.48 17.29 33.03
SO3 1.02 0.82 0.34 1.50
Fe2O3 2.36 11.97 8.26 0.79
Loss of ignition 0.2 1.47 0.42 2.99
Specify gravity 2.9 2.02 2.23 2.6
Specific Surface 418 300 385.4 -
Area, m2/kg
D50< 15 µm are utilized.

In this research, NaOH and water glass were selected as the alkaline activator. The NaOH solution with 10 M molar concentration
by utilizing pellets of sodium hydroxide with 97% purity obtained locally and dissolving them in tap water. On the one hand, the
sodium silicate was provided by SCL company, with a molar ratio (Ms) of 2.65 (where Ms = SiO2/Na2O, SiO2 = 34.4%, and Na2O =
13%) and H2O = 52% and a density of 1559 kg/m3. The solution of the alkaline activator was prepared by using a ratio of Na2SiO3/
NaOH equal to 2.5.
As a fine aggregate, micro-silica sand was used, which was supplied by DCP- Iraq. The used silica sand in the mixtures has a light
brown to creamy color, with granular size, and specific gravity of (0.08–0.25) mm, and 2.6 respectively. The results of the chemical
analysis of silica sand, which was examined using XRF, are presented in Table 1.
Polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA) has been used with a volume fraction, diameter, and length, of 2%, 40 µm, and 12 mm respectively.
Furthermore, the other properties of the PVA fiber like density, tensile strength, and elastic modulus were 1300 kg/m3, 1600 MPa, and
31 GPa respectively. Also a second-generation superplasticizer with a naphthalene-based admixture was utilized to achieve the
required flowability.
The proportions of the engineered geopolymer composites (EGCs) mixtures were presented in Table 2. For all EGC mixtures, the
ratio of Na2SiO3/NaOH was kept at 2.5, and the ratio of alkali activator to binder was maintained at 0.4. Furthermore, the proportion
of silica sand to binder was kept constant at 0.2 in all mixture compositions to ensure greater ductility in the mixes. The experimental
program of this research was separated into 2 groups, and each group consisted of 7 mixes. Mixtures of the first group were used to
uncover the influence of replacing the FA with RBWP on the fresh and hardened properties of EGC. In the same manner the second
group replaced GGBS by RBWP. The replacements were in a sequence of 20% for each step. For example, the mix with code 20 F+ 80B
implies that the mixture contains 20% fly ash and 80% recycled brick waste powder, and the mix with code 40 S+ 60B implies that the
mixture includes 40% Slag and 60% recycled brick waste powder. The total content of binding materials was 1000 kg/m3.
100
80
60
Finer (%)
40 RBWP
FA
20
GGBS
Silica Sand
0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000
Diameter (mm)
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of FA, GGBS, RBWP, and silica sand.
5
Table 2
Mix proportions of EGCs.
Mix code FA GGBS RBWP NaOH Na2SiO3 Alkali/ binder Sand/ binder PVA HRWR Water/ binder
100 F+ 0B 1 0 0 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.00 0.00

80 F+ 20B 0.8 0 0.2 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.005 0.021
60 F+ 40B 0.6 0 0.4 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.015 0.021
50 F+ 50B 0.5 0 0.5 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.025 0.033
40 F+ 60B 0.4 0 0.6 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.035 0.046
20 F+ 80B 0.2 0 0.8 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.045 0.097
0 F+ 100B 0 0 1 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.06 0.118
100 S+ 0B 0 1 0 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.054 0.109
80 S+ 20B 0 0.8 0.2 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.07 0.133
60 S+ 40B 0 0.6 0.4 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.068 0.142
50 S+ 50B 0 0.5 0.5 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.068 0.178
40 S+ 60B 0 0.4 0.6 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.068 0.178
20 S+ 80B 0 0.2 0.8 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.068 0.175
0 S+ 100B 0 0 1 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.06 0.118
*All mixture proportions of EGCs by weight (Except for PVA fiber by volume).
3.2. Mixing and curing
Based on the intended molarity (10 M) which was recommended by [67,68], the required quantity of sodium hydroxide beads was
weighed and dissolved in tap water. During the process of mixing, an exothermic reaction occurred, and the liquid became very hot.
After a few hours, sodium silicate was added and therefore, to reach the chemical equilibrium, the liquid was stored at room tem
perature for at least one day before being used in the mix of EGC. Next, the dry components of the EGC mixture were blended for
approximately 5 min then, the mixture was mixed with the alkaline activator solution for 2 min. Soon after, the Naphthalene-based
water-reducing admixture and additional water were added in a controlled manner to achieve the desired workability. Once a
consistent mixture was achieved, the PVA was progressively incorporated, and the mixing was continued for another 5 min.
The flow table test was performed after the addition of fibers, to ensure that the mixture had the desired consistency and that the
fibers were evenly dispersed, as depicted in Fig. 4. Consequently, the total mixing process for each mix took approximately 12 to
15 min. Then mixtures were cast and compacted for one minute by using a vibrating table.
Afterward, all fresh EGC samples were enclosed in nylon bags to avoid water loss and kept at room temperature for 24 h as a rest
period [69]. Studies suggested that heat curing enhances the ductility and the qualities of the EGC [5,6,70] therefore, it was selected as
the curing technique for this investigation. Subsequent to the rest period, the samples were put in the oven for heat curing at 70 ◦ C for
24 h, as shown in Fig. 4. Eventually, upon the completion of the curing, all samples were taken out of the oven to cool down to room
temperature and kept for 28 days.
3.3. Test procedures
After the mixing process, the flowability of the EGC matrix was evaluated by performing the flow measurement according to ASTM
C1437–13 after incorporating the PVA fiber. The paste average base diameter (D) was increased, and this increase was reported as a
percentage of the base diameter (Do ), to calculate the flow measurement, as shown in the Eq. 3. [67,71].
D − Do
× 100% (3)
Do
The setting time of the EGC mixtures was evaluated according to ASTM C191–13 by utilizing the Vicat needle test. The duration of
the initial set was determined by the duration it took for the penetration depth to reach 25 mm, and the duration of the final set was
determined by the point at which the needle’s circular imprint on the specimen surface stopped being complete. Additionally, the
weight of the cubic samples was measured on the day of testing (day 28) to calculate their density by dividing it by their volumes. Later
on the same day, according to ASTM C109 guidelines [72] and sample dimensions of 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm, the compressive
strength was evaluated. The average of three samples was recorded. The testing was performed using an Alfa-universal testing machine
with a maximum capacity of 600 kN.
Subsequently, the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) specifications were applied [73], to assess the uniaxial tension properties
of the EGC samples. Therefore, the test was performed using a displacement rate of 0.2 mm/min, and samples of 330 × 60 × 13 mm as
seen in Fig. 5 were used. The test was conducted using a displacement control universal testing machine manufactured by
Controls-automatics, with a maximum capacity of 300 kN.
Finally, for the microstructural properties, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to observe
the microstructural characteristics of the EGC specimens. The XRD analysis was carried out using XPert Powder PANalytical, while the
SEM analysis was conducted using a QUANTA 450 device. These techniques were used to analyze the reasons for changes in the
strength of the EGC samples at the microstructural level, especially the samples of mixtures that obtained the optimal outcomes in
terms of tensile strain and compressive strength.
6
Fig. 4. Procedures for Mixing, Pouring, and Curing of Engineered Geopolymer Composites Samples.
7
Fig. 5. Scheme of Direct tensile test specimen.
Table 3
Workability of EGC mixtures.
Mix code Flow Table % SP% of Binder Water/ Binder
100 F+ 0B 78 0.19
0.0
80 F+ 20B 75 0.20
1.0
60 F+ 40B 73 0.20
2.0
50 F+ 50B 75 0.21
2.5
40 F+ 60B 80 0.21
3.5
20 F+ 80B 75 0.23
4.5
0 F+ 100B 78 0.24
6.0
100 S+ 0B 77 6.0 0.24
80 S+ 20B 76 6.6 0.25
60 S+ 40B 79 6.8 0.25
50 S+ 50B 80 6.8 0.25
40 S+ 60B 79 6.8 0.25
20 S+ 80B 78 6.8 0.25
0 S+ 100B 78 6.0 0.24
8
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Flowability
Table 3 shows the flowability of both FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP groups. As a matter of fact, all mixtures showed decent uniform
distribution of fibers and an acceptable level of flowability. The flowability of FA-RBWP EGC mixtures were around 76 ± 3%, which
can be relatively considered as close to each other. However, the percentage of used superplasticizers as can be seen in Table 3, was
continuously increased from 0% up to 6% with the increased level of FA replacement with RBWP. Also, the amount of water demand
was increased 25% when the FA was fully replaced with RBWP. In other words, the workability of the FA-RBWP EGC mixtures was
reduced by the increase of RBWP amount, so extra superplasticizer and Water/Binder ratio were needed to have similar workability. It
is worth mentioning that high RBWP content in the matrices reduces workability, which makes it challenging to place, vibrate, and
compact the material. Also, the water demand was increased with the increased level of replacement, hence the Water/Binder ratio
was increased from 0.192 to 0.24. The reason behind the reduction in workability in high RBWP content in the mixture can be due to
the porous surface of unreacted RBWP [74,75]. Accordingly, the porous surface can quickly absorb water from the fresh mixture,
reducing the quantity of free water in the mixture, compared to fly ash. At the same time, when the RBWP content increases, there will
be a rise in the number of angular particles [76], and a decrease in the spherical particles of FA. The spherical shape is advantageous for
better flowability of the mixture.
On the other hand, the flowability of GGBS-RBWP EGC mixtures as can be observed in Table 3,
was fluctuating between 76 to 80%. The replacement of GGBS with RBWP didn’t have a notable impact on the workability of the
mixtures. The high demand for superplasticizers of 6 to 6.8% in GGBS-RBWP EGC mixtures, clearly comes from the poor workability of
slag as reported by Hassan et al. [77], and the low workability of RBWP. It was stated by Hwang et al. [78] that the reason for the
contribution of RBWP to reduce the workability is the irregular shape of RBWP particles. Also, the water/binder ratio up to 0.252 was
needed which is relatively higher than FA-RBWP EGC mixtures.
4.2. Setting times
The initial and final settings of FA-RBWP EGC mixtures are presented in Fig. 6. In comparison to the control mix 100 F+ 0B, the
incorporation of RBWP dropped the times for the initial and final settings significantly. With an increase in RBWP content from 0% to
100%, the initial setting time was reduced from 780 to 75 min (90.38%) and the final setting time was reduced from 960 to 90 min
(90.63%). The shorter setting time of the EGC mixtures was due to the fast geopolymerization process, which was brought about by the
high water-absorbing ability of the RBWP in the mixture, which resulted in increasing the concentration of the alkaline activator,
subsequently, decreasing the setting time and workability [79,80]. Also, the decrease of dissolution of the geopolymer binder in the
level of alkaline activator resulted in a decrease in the extent of geopolymerization [81]. In addition, according to the XRF analysis
results Table 1, the RBWP contained a higher CaO content in comparison to FA, so the incorporation of RBWP resulted in increase in
calcium content in the system. The hydration process of the mixture greatly increase by the addition of calcium [82].
On the other hand, the replacement of GGBS with RBWP in EGCs mixtures increased the times for the initial and final settings
constantly, as shown in Fig. 7. For instance, the replacement of 20% of GGBS with RBWP increased the times for initial and final
settings by 100% and 50% respectively, and when the GGBS was completely replaced by RBWP, the duration of the initial and final set
was extended from 10 to 75 min (650%) and 20 to 90 min (350%), respectively. This was consistent with findings from previous
studies that the greater the GGBS amount in the binder, the shorter duration of setting [82–84]. Also, it is consistent with initial and
FA-RBWP
1000
800
Time (min)
600
400
200
0
100F+0B 80F+20B 60F+40B 50F+50B 40F+60B 20F+80B 0F+100B
Initial setting Final Setting
Fig. 6. Initial and final setting times of FA-RBWP EGC mixes.
9
GGBS-RBWP
100
80
60
Time (min)
40
20
0
100S+0B 80S+20B 60S+40B 50S+50B 40S+60B 20S+80B 0S+100B
Initial Setting Final Setting
Fig. 7. GGBS-RBWP EGC mixes’ initial and final setting times.
final setting time that were reported by Rakhimova et al. [85], which were 10 and 28 min, respectively. It is essential to note that the
setting time is a critical property, as a short setting time can make the mixing and casting process challenging, potentially impacting
the practicability and use of fresh mixes [86].
4.3. Density
The density of all mixtures was determined at the age of 28 days before the compression test. As it is clear in Fig. 8, the mixtures
became denser after incorporating RBWP in FA-EGC mixtures. The observed increase in the density can be attributed to the
improvement in the distribution of particle size and filling impacts from the brick powder in the mixture, making particle packing
denser and more efficient, therefore leading to a decrease in void sizes within the geopolymer mixture. As a result, the mixture with full
brick powder was denser by 5% than the control mixture with full FA.
In support of the present study’s findings, Wang et al. [79] determined that the incorporation of waste brick powder increased the
bulk density of solid waste-based geopolymers by 5.7% and 6.1% at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
In the same way, the density of GGBS-EGC mixtures that were replaced with RBWP have been determined and presented in Fig. 8.
And it was noted that the density of the mixtures was decreased with the decrease of GGBS amount in the mixtures, and that decrement
reached around 10% when the GGBS was fully replaced with RBWP. The reason was perhaps due to the specific gravity of the GGBS,
which was higher than that of RBWP, 2.9 and 2.23 respectively. The findings of this study are consistent with previous research [70,
87–89], which suggested that increasing the content of GGBS resulted in a rise in the density of the mixtures, and this was associated
GGBS-RBWP FA-RBWP
2.2
2.13
2.1
2.03
Density g/cm3
2 1.97
1.95 1.94 1.93 1.92
1.9 1.92
1.9 1.91 1.91
1.87
1.85
1.8 1.83
1.7
0% 20% 40% 50% 60% 80% 100%
Level of Replacement with RBWP
Fig. 8. Density values of EGCs of FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP mixtures.
10
with higher strength values.
4.4. Compressive strength
The compressive strength results of FA-RBWP mixtures are presented in Fig. 9. Each presented result value reflects the average of at
least three tested samples. From the acquired results, it was indicated that the amount of FA being substituted by RBWP in the geo
polymer mixture played a critical role in developing its strength. The compressive strength ranged from 34.5 to 71.13 MPa, the highest
value obtained with 40% replacement of FA with RBWP in mix 60 F+ 40B, which was 106% more than the control mix 100 F+ 0B.
Along with Fig. 9, the increment of RBWP content from 0 to 40% progressively increased the compressive strength, after that the
strength started to decrease slightly until it reached 43.03 MPa in the mix 0 F+ 100B, which is 25% higher than the control mix
100 F+ 0B.
The first and most important phase in the geopolymerization process is the breakdown of a solid aluminosilicate source into silicate
and aluminate monomers, which then go through further condensation processes to generate geopolymer gel. In addition, increases in
calcium content have been shown to help with the aluminosilicate dissolution stage by increasing the pH in the surrounding envi
ronments, which in turn increases the amount of geopolymerization and, therefore, the geopolymer framework [90].
The increase in strength can be attributed to the proportionate contributions of soluble silica from alkaline solutions, FA, and
RBWP. This balance leads to an increase in compressive strength at different curing stages. However, compositions based purely on
waste brick powder showed limited strength development, as reported by Criado et al. [91]. Moreover, the progressive compressive
strength may also be connected to the leaching of silica and alumina from the brick powder when exposed to a high concentration of
10 M of NaOH, which fastened the geopolymerization process [92]. After 40% FA replacement, the system’s total silica and alumina
content decreased, which contributed from FA. This resulted in fewer Si-O-Al bonds, particularly between FA and RBWP particles,
which might be the cause of the system’s decline in compressive strength [93]. Also, the low strength that was observed from the EGC
contain (100% FA) probably due to low amount of calcium causing lower extent of dissolution [94].
It’s worth mentioning, that the results showed a good agreement with previous studies [68,95] where the researchers studied the
effect of replacing FA with red-brick powder.
In comparison, the GGBS-RBWP mixtures showed more strength than FA-RBWP. According to Fig. 10, the average compressive
strength ranges from 43.03 to 127.39 MPa, and the max. strength was obtained in the control mix 100 S+ 0B. GGBS leads to reinforce
the geopolymer binder therefore improvement in the compressive strength [96]. The progress in the compressive strength of the GGBS
mixture can be related to the high availability of calcium ions in the GGBS powder. These ions react with alumina and silica to form
CASH gel, which in combination with the geopolymer gel, leads to an improvement in the density of the geopolymer matrix and an
overall improvement in strength [87,97,98]. It has been shown that calcium, rather than an alkali cation, is integrated into the
geopolymer pore structure as a counterbalancing cation, which results in a reduction in the geopolymer’s unit cell size [93].
Contrary to FA-RBWP, the replacement of GGBS with RBWP resulted in reducing the compressive strength. The increase in
replacement level that is associated with the decline in strength can be attributed to the amount of CaO in the aluminosilicate source
material. According to XRF analysis in Table 1, GGBS contained 38.68%, while RBWP contain only 17.29%. For instance, when 40% of
the GGBS was replaced, the strength was reduced by 31% to 87.97 MPa, and the full replacement reduced the strength by 66%. In
agreement with the current study’s results, Zawrah et al. [99] replaced 40% of the GGBS in the mixture; therefore, the compressive
strength of the mixture reduced to 83 MPa. In addition, Vafaei et al. [87] investigated the effect of replacing waste clay brick powder
with slag (8,16, and 24 wt%) on strength development of geopolymer mortars. Similar findings were achieved with the incorporation
80
71.13
64.78
62.07
Compressive Strength (MPa)
60 54.01 53.58
43.03
40 34.5
20
0
100F+0B 80F+20B 60F+40B 50F+50B 40F+60B 20F+80B 0F+100B
FA-RBWP mixes
Fig. 9. Compressive Strength of FA-RBWP EGCs.
11
140
127.39
120
Compressive Strength (MPa)

100.55
100
87.97
80.22
80 75.13
60 56.04
43.03
40
20
0
100S+0B 80S+20B 60S+40B 50S+50B 40S+60B 20S+80B 0S+100B
GGBS-RBWP mixes
Fig. 10. Compressive Strength of GGBS-RBWP EGCs.
of slag, which developed the compressive strength by improving of matrix density.

Lastly, Ouda et al. [100] produced a brick based geopolymer with same molarity and water to binder ratio of 10% and 0.24,
respectively. The achieved compressive strength was 42 MPa, which closely aligns with the current study’s compressive strength of
43.03 MPa.
4.5. Direct tensile performance of EGC
The results of the direct tensile test in terms of maximum tensile strain, ultimate tensile strength, and first crack stress of the newly
developed FA-RBWP EGCs are presented in Table 4. The tensile stress-strain diagrams for FA-RBWP EGC mixtures, which contained 2%
PVA fiber and micro silica-sand with a nominal aggregate size ranging between 0.08 to 0.25 mm, at the age of 28 days are displayed in
Fig. 11. Each data point is the average of at least five uniaxial tensile specimen test results.
According to the results, it was found that the presence of brick powder had a notable impact on the tensile behavior of FA-RBWP
EGC, the strain capacities improved from 4.19% to 11.39%. In other words, the ductility increased from 419 to 1139 times the ductility
of traditional fiber-reinforced concrete and ordinary concrete [101]. It was reported by Wang et al. [79] that the ultimate displacement
of strain-hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) increases with increasing recycled-brick powder replacements, this suggests that
the addition of recycled-brick powder enhances the flexibility of SHCC.
Moreover, the tensile strain capacity of the mixtures improved and increased by 172% when the FA was fully replaced with RBWP
in mix 0 F+ 100B. Controversially, mix 60 F+ 40B exhibits a more brittle behavior with a minimum strain capacity of 1.99%, mostly
due to its high compressive strength of 71.13 MPa, which was the highest among all FA-RBWP EGC mixtures. Kumarappa et al. [102]
have reported a connection between compressive strength and brittleness for both GGBS and FA mortars, where brittleness increases as
compressive strength increases. It’s worth mentioning that the tensile strain capacity of the FA-EGC, with a water to geopolymer solid
ratio of 0.2 as reported by Nematollahi et al. [103] was 4.3% which is compatible with the result of the control mix in the current study.
Regarding the tensile strength of FA-RBWP EGC, Table 4 and Fig. 11 show that it increases with the replacement level. In support of
this, the tensile strength of fully brick reached 3.61 MPa, which is 29% more than the control mix of fully FA. It is worth mentioning
that the max tensile strength was 3.77 MPa in the 40 F+ 60B mix.
In addition, all mixtures demonstrated Pseudo-Strain Hardening (PSH) behavior as can be seen in Fig. 11. And by using the method
outlined by [104,105], it is predicted that the strength of the first crack for each mixture may be ascertained from the tensile
stress-strain diagram. The first crack is recognized as a spot on the tensile stress-strain diagram where the stress experiences a
Table 4
Direct tension test performance of FA-RBWP EGCs.
Mix ID 1st crack strength (MPa) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Tensile strain capacity (%)
100 F+ 0B 1.59 2.8 4.19

80 F+ 20B 2.52 3.75 6.65
60 F+ 40B 2.72 3.54 1.99
50 F+ 50B 2.91 3.72 3.2
40 F+ 60B 2.90 3.77 6.06
20 F+ 80B 2.07 3.66 4.38
0 F+ 100B 2.69 3.61 11.39
12
Tensile Stress (MPa)

4
3
100F+0B
80F+20B
2
60F+40B
50F+50B
1 40F+60B
20F+80B
0F+100B
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Tensile strain Capacity %
Fig. 11. Tensile stress-strain responses of FA-RBWP EGCs.
considerable decrease for the first time, or when the slope of the curve abruptly changes, and it also increased from 1.59 to 2.69 MPa
with the increase of the RBWP content. In support of the tensile strength and first crack for FA-EGC of the present study, Kan et al.
[106] reported similar findings of 2.9 and 1.4 MPa, respectively.
On the other hand, the direct tensile performance of GGBS-RBWP EGC mixes showed less ductility than FA-RBWP. The presence of
GGBS in the EGC mixture increases fiber bridging stress and brittleness, resulting in reduced strain capacity. This can be ascribed that
GGBS altered the geopolymer gel’s chemistry and made the microstructure of EGC denser and less porous [107]. It’s worth mentioning
that this outcome agrees with the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the dry density and compressive strength of the EGC samples,
as discussed in Sections 3.2 and 3.4. Aliakbar et al. [108] observed an increase in direct tensile strength with an increase in the amount
of GGBS. In their study, an increase of 40% in tensile strength was recorded when the FA was completely replaced with GGBS.
Regarding the tensile strain capacity of GGBS-RBWP, it was ranging between 1.03 to 11.39%.
As shown in Table 5 and Fig. 12, the control mix 100 S+ 0B achieved a minimum tensile strain capacity of 1.03% and a maximum
compressive and tensile strength of 127.39 and 5.51 MPa, respectively. This may be regarded as an indicator, that with higher
compressive strength, lower ductility will achieve. Meanwhile, by increasing the RBWP amount the ductility of the EGC mixtures was
constantly increased until it reached 11 times the control mix 0 S+ 100B. Also, by increasing the RBWP content, the strength of both
the first crack and ultimate tensile decreased from 5.42 to 2.69 MPa and from 5.51 to 3.61 MPa, respectively. The reduction of tensile
strength was linked with the reduction of compressive strength of GGBS-RBWP EGC.
The reason for the increment in the capacity of tensile strain with the increase of RBWP in both FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP EGC
mixtures is that the addition of RBWP tends to weaken the chemical bond at the interface between the EGC matrix and PVA, while
increasing the frictional bond, resulting in a higher tensile strain capacity.
The capacity of EGC to withstand tensile strain increases as the potential of multiple cracking increases. The multiple cracking
patterns of the fully brick EGC are demonstrated in Fig. 13. The spacing of the cracks was evaluated by dividing the gauge length of the
sample by the number of visible cracks on the unloaded sample, which were counted manually. Notably, the actual number of cracks
that formed on the loaded specimen during the direct tension test was greater than the number of cracks counted on the unloaded
sample after the test had been finished [6,103]. Besides, it was difficult to identify all of the micro-cracks that formed on the surface of
the specimen during the uniaxial tension test because they were fully closed when the specimen was unloaded [109]. As shown in
Fig. 13, the cracking was consistently numerous, with tiny and controlled widths, thus leading to its remarkably high tensile strain
capacity. The spacing between cracks of the fully RBWP-EGC was roughly the same, varying from 3 to 4 mm, also the width of the
Table 5
Direct tension test performance of GGBS-RBWP EGCs.
Mix ID 1st crack strength, (MPa) Ultimate-tensile strength, (MPa) Tensile strain capacity, (%)
100 S+ 0B 5.42 5.51 1.03

80 S+ 20B 3.33 4.55 1.38
60 S+ 40B 3.35 4.25 2.34
50 S+ 50B 3.4 4.1 2.44
40 S+ 60B 2.1 4.03 2.75
20 S+ 80B 3.19 3.98 4.19
0 S+ 100B 2.69 3.61 11.39
13
Tensile Stress (MPa)

4
3
100S+0B
80S+20B
2 60S+40B
50S+50B
1 40S+60B
20S+80B
0S+100B
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Tensile Strain Capacity %
Fig. 12. Tensile stress-strain responses of GGBS-RBWP EGCs.
Fig. 13. Typical multiple cracking patterns of 0 F+ 100B EGC (a) under loading, (b) after loading.
residual cracks, determined using a microscope on unloaded specimens, and it was ranged from 0.15 to 0.29 mm.
4.6. X-ray diffraction
In Fig. 14, the results of XRD analysis for selected specimens are shown. The figure encompasses the diffractograms of four geo
polymer composites that exhibit strain hardening behavior; fully GGBS 100 S+ 0B, fully FA 100 F+ 0B, fully brick 0 S+ 100B, and mix
60 F+ 40B, that had been made with the specific mixture ingredients and conditions, including 10% sodium concentration and a
curing temperature of 70 ºC for 24 h. The chosen samples represent the lower and optimal strengths of both FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP
EGC group mixtures.
The XRD patterns of the geopolymer products of the four specimens showed that they are amorphous materials with low-intensity,
diffuse halo peaks. These peaks can be seen in the range of 20 to 67 two-theta. The main XRD peaks of all EGC mixtures were related to
quartz and coesite. However, minor peaks of calcite and perovskite double were only obtained in the mixtures that contained RBWP.
Additionally, the pattern of XRD displayed a crystalline phase made up of a dominant Quartz, Coesite, which was observed at 26.53,
26.21, 26.53, and 26.34 two-theta and other weak crystals located at various points, such as 37.97, 23.52, 19.82, and 57.39 two-theta
(◦ ), for (100 S+0B, 100 F+0B, 0 S+100B, and 60 F+40B) respectively. Further, a slight elevation in the range of 20–40 degrees (2θ)
was noticed in the XRD patterns of the EGC, indicating a lower level of amorphousness. This might be a result of the brick’s delayed
cooling rate after the calcination process in brick manufacturing [63]. Ahmari et al. [110] reported that the geopolymeric gel can be
indicated at the angle of 30 degrees two-theta, which is in good accordance with the XRD patterns seen.
Furthermore, it has been noted that the substances used to manufacture geopolymers contain phases such as quartz, coesite, and
14
Q,C
C,Ca
Q,C,Ca
Q,C,Pd
Q,C,Pd
Q,C Q,C,Pd
60F+40B Q,C
C,Pd
Pd Q,Pd Ca Q,C
Q,C
Intensity
C,Ca
Q,C,Ca
Q,C Q,C
0S+100B Q,C Q,C
Ca Q Q,C Ca Q,C
Q,C
Q,C
100F+0B C
Q,C Q,C Q,C
Q,C
100S+0B C
Q,C Q Q,C
Q,C C C Q,C Q,C
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Position [2 Theta] (Copper (Cu))
Fig. 14. Compound Composition by XRD for EGC FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP based mixtures. Q: Quartz; C: Coesite; Ca: Calcite; Pd: Perov
skite double.
calcite. Additionally, in the case of geopolymers made from the waste of ceramic, concrete, and red clay brick, Sun et al. [111]
identified the presence of unreacted or partially reacted crystalline phases like quartz, anorthite, and albite.
Likewise Salami et al. [112], another notable peak was observed at 68 degrees two-theta, which is believed to be attributed to
silicon dioxide, likely originating from the source materials rich in aluminum [113].
Whereas, in the sample that contain 60% FA and 40% RBWP in mix 60 F+ 40B, in addition to the amorphous geopolymer product,
an innovative semi-crystalline phase made of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and sodium calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (NCASH) has
been produced, as indicated by XRD analysis.
A less intense crystalline peak can be seen at around 67◦ two-theta in the XRD pattern of the 100 S+ 0B mixture, while the other
two mixtures 100 F+ 0B and 0 F+ 100B, exhibit a less intense crystalline peak at around 68◦ two-theta have. However, at the same
mentioned angle, the mixture 60 F+ 40B has a more intense crystalline peak, which contributes to its greater strength compared to the
other two mixtures.
It should be noted that, in the EGC sample of mix the 100 S+ 0B, which had the greatest compressive stress among all other mixes,
the peaks were less intense compared to the other mixes.
The presence of quartz peaks in all geopolymer mixes may indicate the availability of unreacted silica. In most cases, a decrease in
the quartz peaks’ intensity results in an increase in the geopolymers’ compressive strength. This may occur due to the transformation of
quartz crystals in raw RBWP into amorphous geopolymerization products that contribute to the material’s strength.
It was reported by Rovnaník et al. [114] that in comparison to full RBWP, the quantitative study revealed that the percentage of the
amorphous phase increased by about 40%, and the most significant decrease in peak intensity was also noticed.
4.7. Scanning electron microscopy
The morphology and microstructure of four selected EGC samples (100 S+0B, 100 F+0B, 0 S+100B, and 60 F+40B) that were
subjected to a strain hardening process with a 10 M NaOH and Ms ratio of 2.5 and were cured at 70 degrees Celsius for 24 h were
examined using SEM. The outcome of this analysis is depicted in Fig. 15. The SEM images of the specimens were analyzed to gain a
greater comprehension of the morphologies of the generated geopolymer. As observed in Fig. 15(a), specimen 100 S+ 0B had a dense
structure with very limited unreacted particles and a more compact microstructure with relatively fewer microcracks, which likely
contributed to its higher compressive strength. This suggests that the aluminosilicates contained in the GGBS starting materials un
derwent significant dissolution during the alkali treatment, leading to the formation of strong covalent bonds between silicon, oxygen,
and aluminum by creating cross-linked silicon and aluminum tetrahedrons [115].
The microstructure of the 100 F+ 0B specimen, which consists of 100% FA and zero% RBWP, as shown in Fig. 15 b, displays a few
spherical FA particles that remained unreacted in the matrix of the geopolymer throughout the dissolving process. This occurred
because these particles were not exposed to the alkalis in the system, since even the smallest fly ash particles were present [116]. Also,
this phenomenon could be linked to the dissolution of silica components from the fly ash in an alkaline environment, which neces
sitates a higher concentration of NaOH and extended reaction time. The amount of aluminosilicate gel that develops and the interface
between the gel and fibers and sand particles in the EGCs matrix play an important impact in determining the overall improvement in
the compressive stress of the material.
15
J.K. Ahmed et al.
16
Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02863

Fig. 15. SEM micrograph of EGCs of (a) 100 S+ 0B, (b) 100 F+ 0B, (c) 0 S+ 100B, and (d) 60 F+ 40B.
The SEM Micrograph of the 0 S+ 100B sample can be seen in Fig. 15 (c). In comparison to GGBS and FA EGC samples, this sample
showed a degree of uniformity with crystalline structures of irregular shapes and some unreacted precursor particles of RBWP in the
geopolymer matrix. Similar findings were monitored by Komnitsas et al. [59] with comparable chemical composition to those of brick
precursors utilized here in this research.
Moreover, the SEM images show that the alkaline activation of the RBWP results in the dissolution of aluminosilicate materials,
producing a three-dimensional network of tetrahedral polymers spread over the surface of the specimen [117].
Next, the SEM image of the 60 F+ 40B sample reveals the presence of some interconnected crystalline formations, as shown in
Fig. 15 (d). However, their structure is not consistent, as some regions are densely packed with few microcracks, while others have a
tightly packed microstructure. It’s worth mentioning that the presence of SiO2 crystalline from RBWP could lead to a boost in the
precipitation of Na element on FA particles. This can be attributed that the SiO2 crystals produced on the surface of FA particles limit
the movement of Na+ ions [68].
On the other hand, the SEM image demonstrates the existence of big particles partially reacting during the alkaline activation
phase, indicating that the size distribution of the particle plays a significant part in completing the geopolymerization procedure.
Smaller particles appear to experience a complete reaction and dissolution, while bigger particles only undergo a partial reaction
[118].
Overall, the SEM images exhibit a uniform and dense structure that is evenly distributed, with strong connections among the alkali-
activated matrix and the PVA fibers. This can be referred to the fact that the fibers are hydrophilic and the hydroxyl group of the alkali-
activated matrix forms robust hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
5. Conclusion
This study searches for the possibility of utilizing RBWP, as a substitution for industrial waste FA and GGBS in the manufacturing
process of EGC. The fresh and hardened properties of EGCs were examined and thorough microstructural analysis were carried out.
Therefore, the following can be concluded from the research:
1. The presence of RBWP reduced the workability of FA-RBWP EGC mixtures, so more superplasticizer up to 6% and water-to-binder
ratio were needed to maintain workability. While, in GGBS-RBWP EGC mixtures, the workability is almost the same and required
similar amounts of superplasticizer (6 to 6.8%) and water/binder ratio.
2. The contribution of RBWP in FA-RBWP EGC mixtures significantly reduces the initial and final set, from 780 to 75 and from 960 to
90 min, respectively. In contrast, divergent outcomes were indicated in GGBS-RBWP EGC mixtures, a continuous increase in both
initial and final set duration, from 10 to 75, and from 20 to 90 min, respectively.
3. The incorporating of RBWP in FA-RBWP EGC resulted in a heightened of the mixtures density up to 5%. Whereas opposite results
were observed the GGBS-RBWP EGC. A decrease in density of approximately 10% was observed when GGBS was completely
replaced with RBWP.
4. The increase of RBWP content in FA-RBWP EGC significantly improved the compressive strength, specially at 40% replacement,
were the highest compressive strength of 71.13 MPa was achieved. On the other hand, the substitution of GGBS with RBWP in
GGBS-RBWP EGC reduced the compressive strength, from 127.39 MPa down to 43.03 MPa.
5. The replacement of FA with RBWP notably improved the tensile strain, reaching 11.39% (2.7 times the full FA EGC), when the FA
was completely replaced with RBWP. Similarly, RBWP increased the tensile strain capacity of GGBS-RBWP EGC up to 11 times the
tensile strain of fully GGBS EGC. The max ductility was recorded by fully RBWP which is 1100 times than conventional concrete or
fiber-reinforced concrete.
6. Replacing FA with RBWP increased the tensile strength by about 28.9%, while replacing GGBS with RBWP reduced the tensile
strength by around 34.5%. All mixtures exhibited post-peak softening behavior, accompanied by an increase in first-crack strength.
7. The fully RBWP-EGC displaying greater potential for multi-cracking behavior which is exhibited a uniform distribution and
numerous microcracks with a regulated width.
8. According to XRD analysis, the primary formed mineral phase was quartz. Moreover, The SEM images showed uniform, dense,
compact specimens with some unreacted precursor particles in the geopolymer matrix, indicating the importance of the particle
size in the geopolymerization process. Additionally, the SEM images revealed a robust bond between the PVA fibers and the alkali-
activated matrix.
According to the findings, it can be concluded that utilizing RBWP as a substitution for industrial waste in the manufacturing of EGC
is a viable option.
Directions for future work
The impact of replacing FA and GGBS with RBWP on fresh and hardened properties of EGCs was investigated. However, further
research and assessments are required in this area to prepare the brick-based EGC for the construction industry. This includes long-
term durability studies, assessing resistance to environmental factors, and proposing strategies for improved performance. Addi
tionally, study a comprehensive life cycle analysis to evaluate the environmental impact and explore alternative reinforcement ma
terials, also assessing brick based EGC structural performance.
17
Funding
This study has received no funding.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ahmed Junaid K.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Data curation, Investigation, Resources, Software,
Validation. Atmaca Nihat: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Su
pervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Khoshnaw Ganjeena J.: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Project
administration, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support and assistance provided by the Scientific Research Projects Unit (GUBAP) at the
University of Gaziantep in conducting this research.
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Building A Sustainable Future: An Experimental Study on Recycled Brick

Article in Case Studies in Construction Materials · July 2024

Junaid Kameran Ahmed Nihat Atmaca

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Building a sustainable future: An experimental study on recycled

Fig. 1. Polymerization reaction [13,14].

3. Materials and experimental program

The methodology of the study is shown in a flow chart in Fig. 2.

3.1. Materials and mix proportions

Fig. 2. Methodology flow chart.

GGBS FA RBWP Silica sand

Al2O3 8.05 17.15 13.17 10.89

D50< 15 µm are utilized.

100 F+ 0B 1 0 0 0.094 0.235 0.4 0.2 0.02 0.00 0.00

3.2. Mixing and curing

3.3. Test procedures

Fig. 5. Scheme of Direct tensile test specimen.

4. Results and discussion

4.2. Setting times

Fig. 6. Initial and final setting times of FA-RBWP EGC mixes.

Fig. 7. GGBS-RBWP EGC mixes’ initial and final setting times.

Level of Replacement with RBWP

Fig. 8. Density values of EGCs of FA-RBWP and GGBS-RBWP mixtures.

with higher strength values.

4.4. Compressive strength

Fig. 9. Compressive Strength of FA-RBWP EGCs.

Compressive Strength (MPa)

Fig. 10. Compressive Strength of GGBS-RBWP EGCs.

of slag, which developed the compressive strength by improving of matrix density.

4.5. Direct tensile performance of EGC

100 F+ 0B 1.59 2.8 4.19

Tensile Stress (MPa)

Fig. 11. Tensile stress-strain responses of FA-RBWP EGCs.

100 S+ 0B 5.42 5.51 1.03

Tensile Stress (MPa)

Fig. 12. Tensile stress-strain responses of GGBS-RBWP EGCs.

4.6. X-ray diffraction

4.7. Scanning electron microscopy

Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02863

Directions for future work

This study has received no funding.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of Competing Interest

The data that has been used is confidential.

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