PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (REVIEWER) MODULE 6

Independent Measure Design – only exposes each group to one level of the intervention and measure their responses.

Repeated Measure Design – each group will be exposed to every level of the intervention consecutively, and their response will be measured for
each intervention.
LESSON 1: Describing Intervention

CARRYOVER EFFECTS – a disadvantage of repeated measure design.

Classic experimental design contains:

– Practice effect it is where the participants get better at the task in later conditions because they got the chance to practice
• INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT VARIABLE it.

•
–
EXPERIMENTAL and CONTROL GROUPS
Fatigue effect is when the participants get tired or bored their ability to carry out the task worsen
• PRE-TESTING and POST-TESTING

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH – the researcher manipulates the Independent Variable (IV) and measure its effect on the Dependent Variable
(DV).
– Context effect this happens when the participants change how they perform the task based on hoy they think they are
being observed.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – also known as the treatment or intervention the variable you are studying. These interventions vary depending on
COUNTERBALANCING – this is to prevent the carryover effects. It means exposing different participants to different order of interventions.
the field of study.

The effect of these interventions can be tested by comparing two groups:

3. Describe how you control for confounding variables

• Experimental group – is exposed to the intervention.

CONFOUNDING VARIABLE – a third variable unmeasured variable is present that influences the presumed cause and presumed effect.

• Control group – group that is not exposed to the intervention. Ways to reduce the impact of confounding variables:

There are also cases that the researcher adds another group called the comparison group. This group will not receive the intervention
that is being studied, instead they will be exposed to what is the current practice on the field.
1. Restriction Method – restricts your study to only include participants with the same values of confounding factors to minimize its
effect, but this might greatly decrease your sample size.
E.g. a teacher would like to know the effect of a new teaching strategy she devised. She then randomly divided her students into three groups. On
the experimental group, she applied her new teaching strategy and gave them a test after the discussion. With the comparison group, she

2.
discussed the lesson the traditional way and gave them a test afterwards. While for the control group, she did not discuss the lesson and just
gave them the test. Matching Method – done by assigning a match of the participants from the experimental group to the control group with the same
values of confounding factors. This will allow the researcher to include more participants with the same values of confounding
factors.
Pre-test and post-test are conducted to measure the effect these interventions. PRE-TEST is given prior the expose of the
experimental group. POST-TEST given after the intervention.

3. Statistical Control – that is when you set the confounding variables in the regression model as variables. In that way, the researcher
will be able to isolate the impact of confounding variable with the intervention.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Pre-Experimental Research Designs – includes the basic steps in experimental research except it does not have an equivalent control group to
4. Randomization Method – can be used when you have a large sample size. By randomly assigning the participants to the experimental
and control group, they will have the same average values of confounding factors including those that were not identified.
compare the results with.

Quasi-Experimental Research Design – this design has a non-equivalent control group to compare with, but it still does not have to
randomization of participants.
4. Describe how you adhere to research ethics
True Experimental Research Design – this employs equivalent control group to compare the results of the study with, and participants are
randomly assigned to each group. Ethical considerations apply to all health research particularly those that involves human and animals. The Informed
Consent Form must be developed and attached to the research proposal before submitting to the Ethics Committee for approval (Al-Riyami,
2008). This indicates why the study is being done and why the participant was requested to participate. It should also discuss the benefits that
The control group is often called the placebo group in health research. A PLACEBO is a simulated treatment that do not
the participant or others may gain from the study and the process that the participant will get through so that they will have an idea on what to
contain the active ingredients that the experimental group is receiving, and the PLACEBO EFFECT is the positive effect of such intervention. In
expect. It must also explain the possible risk that the participant may be subject with and how will this be addressed. More importantly, the
other words, they are not really receiving any kinds of treatments.
participant must be aware that they can withdraw from the study any time they wanted to and the confidentiality of their information.

These positive effects can be attributed to the thinking of the placebo group that they will get better. The placebo effect
reduces anxiety, stress, and depression and can change their perception and even improve the functioning of their immune system.

LESSON 2: Planning the Data Collection Procedure

DATA COLLECTION is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are performing research for business,
DESCRIBING THE RESEARCH INTERVENTION
governmental, or academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.
(Pritha Bhandari)
There are four characteristics of a sound quantitative research according to Brown (2015):
DATA COLLECTION is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the
hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes. The main objective of collecting the data is to answer the research questions, to prove something about

• RELIABILITY is the degree to which the result or research measurements or observations are consistent.
the variables, and evaluating the results. (John Dudovskiy)

Furthermore, Dudovskiy stated that data collection methods can be divided into two categories:

•
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD – comes from secondary sources of which the data is already published in books, newspapers,
VALIDITY is the degree to which a study’s measurement and observation represent what they are supposed to characterize. magazines, journals, online portals and other printed or digital materials.

– The researcher must then be keen towards the selection of secondary data that they will use in their study. The researcher

• REPLICABILITY is the degree to which the research supplied sufficient information for the reader to verify the results by replicating
must consider the secondary data to be used in their research because it will affect the research validity and reliability.

or repeating the study.

– The researcher might include the date of publication, credential of the author, reliability of the source, quality of
discussions, depth of analyses, the extent of contribution of the text to the development of the research area as some of the criteria in choosing

• GENERALIZABILITY is the degree to which the study is meaningful beyond the sample in a study to the population that it represents.
secondary data.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS – can be subdivided into qualitative and quantitative data collection methods.

➢ QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS – It is associated with non- quantifiable factors such as emptions, words, sounds and colors and
Steps you need to follow to apply these characteristics in your experimental research in describing your intervention (Bevans, 2020): anything that do not involve numbers and computations. In the same article by Dudovskiy, he states that “Qualitative studies aim to
ensure greater level of depth of understanding”.

1.
•
Describe how widely and finely the independent variable may vary
Open-Ended Questions – The respondents have more freedom and flexibility to answer the questions as compared to close-ended
questions.
You can describe how wide the variation of your independent variable by establishing how mild or extreme their exposure to the intervention.

E.g. in psychology, will the participants be exposed to counselling only once or will this be a series of sessions before measuring the results? In
manufacturing, will the performance of the new machine be measured within a single shift, a 24-hour shift, or for the whole week? And in
science research, will the product be exposed to extreme heat or pressure or just a little over the standard values? • 1-on-1 Interview – Is one of the most common qualitative research data collection methods. The interviewer directly collects the
data from the interviewee while the interview is being done. This approach is perfect when you want to get highly personal
information and annotation for your research. The interview can be formal, informal, unstructured, spontaneous or
While describing how fine the variation of your independent variable means identifying the level of measurement you will use, it is categorical conversational and it depends on your needs.
or quantitative variable.

E.g. in education, will you just measure the academic performance of the students by just pass or fail, or With Highest Honors, With High Honors,
With Honors, Non-Honors, or by their General Weighted Average?
• Focus Group – It is also an interview method but instead of interviewing a single person you will be having a group discussion.
The members of the focus group must have a common denominator that is the reason you put them into that particular focus
group for you to get that much needed data.

➢ QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS – It is associated with the different forms and variations of mathematical calculations. The
2. Describe how you assign the participants to groups
most frequently used quantitative data collection methods are observation, experiments and Survey questionnaires with closed-
ended questions.

•
Two main considerations in assigning the subjects or participants into groups:
Observation – It is described as the gathering of information using the senses, wherein the data collector observes and
records all attributes related to the variables. The observation may be done directly or indirectly with the use of accepted

1. A completely randomized design vs a randomized block design

gadgets and apparatus.

2. An independent measure design vs a repeated measure design

• Experiment – It is used particularly in experimental and quasi-experimental research designs wherein the effects of such a
treatment or intervention will be measured after the chosen subjects, participants, or respondents undergo the treatment
Completely Randomized Design – gives every subject an equal chance to be assigned to the experimental group or control group. If there are or intervention.
only two groups, it can be done through the flip coin method but there is a chance that the number of participants for each group if unequal.

Randomized Block Design – the researcher groups the participants that shares the same characteristics together, such as gender, age group, and
socioeconomic status, and then randomly assigns them into either experimental or control group. In that way, each group will have an
equivalent type of participants.
• Close-ended Survey Questionnaire – It is based on questions that offers the respondents a pre-determined answer options
to choose from, with the aim to simplify and quantify the behavior and attitude of the respondents. Closed-ended survey
questionnaire can be subdivided into categorical questions and to interval/ratio questions.
 Categorical Questions – These are questions wherein the responses are categorized hence the name. It can be further classified into 2. Title – This should tell about; where such subject matter is situated, or to what entity or persons it belongs, or from whom the data
dichotomous (‘yes/no’), multiple-choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or a specific piece about such matter were gathered; when data about such subject matter were gathered or the time period when such data were
of predefined information. existent; and sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.

Interval/Ratio Questions – These are survey questions that can consist of rating- scale, the most common of which is Likert-scale a
scalar rating that quantifies the different degree of negation and position of a category, or matrix questions and involve a set of predefined
values to choose from on a fixed scale.
3. Headnote or Prefatory Note – This is written below the title and it is usually enclosed in parentheses. It explains some things in the
table that are not clear.
Closed-Ended Survey Questionnaire – can also be categorized on the manner or platform of which the questionnaire is administered.
These are the following:
4. Stub – The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells what the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label
describes the data contained in that row.
o Paper-pencil-questionnaire – printed questionnaires are sent or personally delivered to respondents.

5. Box Head – Contains the master caption, the column captions, and the column subcaptions. The master caption describes the column
captions and the column captions in turn describe the subcolumn captions.

o Web based questionnaires – the questionnaires are sent and retrieved electronically.
6. Main body, field, or text – The main body, field, or text of the table contains all the quantitative and/or proportional information
presented in the table in rows and in columns.

Step-By-Step Guide to Data Collection (Pritha Bhandari) 7. Footnote – The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in
the table which are not readily understandable or are missing. Proper symbols are used to indicate the items that are clarified or
explained. The footnote is not necessary if everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to clarify or explain.
STEP 1. DEFINE THE AIM OF YOUR RESEARCH

Before proceeding to data collection or anything else, the first thing researcher must be clear with is to know the objectives of the research. 8. Source note – The source note which is generally written below the footnote indicates the origin or source of the data presented in
They can start by writing the statement of the problem and its specific objectives. the table. The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data are the respondents to a questionnaire or interview schedule.

STEP 2. CHOOSE YOUR DATA COLLECTION METHOD Rulings and Spacing in Tables

Base on the aims of your research you can determine the data you want to collect. The data you want to collect will determine the Data Ruling is done in a table to emphasize or make clear relationships. There are no fixed standard rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables.
Collection Method appropriate for it. The table below will help you decide the most appropriate Data Collection Method for your research. Emphasis and clarity are the determining factors. However, the following guidelines are generally followed in the construction of tables for a
thesis report:

STEP 3. PLAN YOUR DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written two spaces above the title.

After deciding which method is the most appropriate for your research you will then have to make the plan on how to execute it. There are
several concepts involve in planning the data collection procedures.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed two spaces below the lowest line of the title.

1. OPERATIONALIZATION – it means that we must turn abstract conceptual ideas into measurable information. We must turn
conceptual definition of the variables into an operational definition that we can measure. 3. The stub, master caption, captions, subcaptions, and totals are separated from one another by vertical and horizontal lines.

2. SAMPLING – the researcher must develop a sampling plan to systematically obtain the data needed for the study. It involves defining 4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups, however, are separated by single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows
the population and the sample. The sampling method will help you determine how to choose the sample or respondents of the study. are separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as wide a space as possible.

3. STANDARDIZING PROCEDURES – researches in the Senior High School are done by multiple members. A detailed standardized 5. Both ends of the table are unruled.
procedure must be observed by all the members when collecting data. This means the group must lay a
specific step-by- step instruction so that everyone in the group collects the data in accordance with the instruction that will ensure the reliability
of the data being collected. 6. There is always a line, either single or double, at the bottom of the table.
Textual Presentation of Tabular Data__________________
4. CREATING A DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN – You must decide on how to organize and store the data even before you start collecting it.

Textual descriptions and discussions play a crucial role in almost every kind of data presentation, especially for people who are not familiar
with data tables and charts.

STEP 4. COLLECT DATA Fives basic rules when drafting a text to describe a tablet or chart:

This is the stage wherein the Plan is implemented. The researcher will observe, measure and collect the data of the variable 1. Try to capture the readers’ interest. While staying within the confines of scientific rigor, the writer should strive to enliven the text by
they are interested in using their chosen method. highlighting key findings and meanings.

2. Take time to write clearly and succinctly. Draft and re-draft to clearly and unambiguously describe the data.

3. Ensure consistency of language and style throughout the report or presentation. Often sections of a single piece are written separately
for each table or chart, so a final check to ensure consistency is advisable.

MODULE 6.1 PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION

Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a 4. Avoid unnecessary repetition. If parts of the report or presentation are written separately, contents get repeated. Review the written
tabulation diagram which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or interview text to eliminate unnecessary repetitions and to harmonize the texts.
schedule have to be tallied one by one.

How to construct a talligram___________________________ 5. Focus on the main points and minimize unnecessary details. Present the most important information first, and add details only if
absolutely necessary.

1. Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective numbers.
E.g. In the study about the relationship between the perceived stress levels of 4 th-year Education Students of Cainta Catholic College and their
academic performances, suppose there are eleven stress factors (stressors) contributing to the level of stress perceived by the student during
the previous semester such as Broken Family, Bullying, Course Load, Environment, Examination, Health Problems, Heavy Workload, Long Travel
A verbal summary should simply accompany the table or chart to explain what the data reveal. It should not dwell on issues that are
too specific or too detailed. Nor should it repeat what is obvious in a table or chart unless there is a need to emphasize the importance of a
certain aspect or limitations of the data. The following are some additional basic rules:

•
Time, Relationship and Traffic. The subclass used is the number of students that perceived stress under the said stressors. The classes and their
subclasses are arranged alphabetically. Keep the summary short – never allow the verbal summary to expand into an itemized account of each entry in the table or chart.
Position the summary in the text close to the table or chart to which it refers. Quoting directly the key reference numbers is the best
way.
2. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate spaces between the line and the number of the rows should
be two more than the number of classes.

•
E.g. In the previous example, there should be, supposedly, thirteen rows, since there are eleven classes (the eleven stressors mentioned in the
previous step). The uppermost row is for the subclass (number of students that perceived stress under the said stressors). The next eleven Use ‘emotional’ descriptions and wording sparingly – Sensational messages can be effective with a non-technical audience, but they
rows are for the classes. The bottom row is for the totals, but for the tallying of the data gathered, there is no need for additional bottom row
can communicate biases or lead to biased interpretations. For example: “Education expenditure per student in China rose by 10 per
since the data to be tallied is from a multiple response questionnaire and the grand total of these data is meaningless. Therefore, only twelve
cent” may be better than: “Education expenditure per student in China shot up by 10 per cent!”
rows are necessary for the talligram construction.

3. Make columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of columns • Unless writing specifically for expert readers, avoid using unnecessary technical terms.
should be two more than the number of subclasses.

E.g. For the given example, since there is a single subclass, there should be three columns. The leftmost column is for the labels of the of the class

•
rows, the rightmost column is for the totals, and the middle column is for the subclass.
Be cautious when attributing causality to a factor – for example, some erratic movements in a data series may be due to changes in
definitions or measurement unit, rather than actual changes in the underlying event. Do not jump to conclusions that ‘this caused
that’, unless there is a sample evidences to justify it.

Presentation of Data____________________________________

Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to
study and interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible Graphical Presentation of Data________________________
and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be established. There are
three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular and graphical.
Graph – a graph is a chart representing the quantitative changes of a variable itself or in comparison with another variable in a pictorial or
diagrammatic form. The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative, geographical, or chronological attributes.
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA – Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data, which focuses on
giving attention to some important data to supplement tabular presentation.

TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA – Sets of numerical results should usually be presented as tables or pictures rather than included in the
ANALYSIS
text which may concisely summarize information that is difficult to describe in words alone.

Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories according to the specific questions under the
Descriptive Statistics also include summary statistics such as averages, range, median, mode, and standard deviation. These summary statistics statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually precedes presentation.
can help people to understand the nature and characteristics of the data set and the phenomenon, which is important when they are analyzing
and interpreting data and indicators in order to understand the situation and to make decisions.
In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order:
Statistical Table – a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses
are given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable
form or forms.
• Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis

The Major Functional Parts of a Statistical Table (Data Preparation)

1. Table Number – Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic, for reference purposes. This is because only the table
• Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)

numbers are cited. The number is written above the title of the table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis
report. If there is only one table the number is unnecessary. • Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential
Statistics)
Data Presentation – involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming
the data; and developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures. • Nominal data – data has no logical; data is basic classification data.

Descriptive Statistics – used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the
measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive
statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.
• Ordinal data – data has a logical order, but the differences between values are not constant.

Inferential Statistics – investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusion from inferential statistics extend beyond
the immediate data alone. We use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions.
• Interval data – data is continuous and has a logical order, data has standardized differences between values, but no natural zero.
Classification of Data

Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics. Classification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the
following: • Ratio data – data is continuous, ordered, has standardized differences between values, and a natural zero.

A. Qualitative – can be arranged into categories that are not numerical. These categories can be physical traits, gender, colors or
Geographical – data may be classified according to their location. It used techniques from spatial analysis, but also encompasses geographical
anything that does not have a number associated to it.
activities such as the defining and naming of geographical regions for statistical purposes.
Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numerical in
nature.
Chronological – data are classified according to the order of their occurrence.

B. Quantitative – these are anything that can be expressed as a number, or quantified. This also refers to the systematic empirical
Cross-classification – this is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. This is breaking up or diving a big class.
investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or numerical data or computational techniques.

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

Before you begin your analysis, you must identify the level of measurement associated with the quantitative data. The level of measurement can
influence the type of analysis you can use. There are four levels of measurement:
 INTERPRETATION

Interpretation or inference follows the textual analysis of each table in the research which may be presented with condition, possible cause and effect of the condition, and remedy. It must have at least three of the following elements presented by Calderon and Gonzales
(1993).

1. Condition. This refers to the findings discovered in the research.

2. Possible cause of the condition. This refers to the reason for the existence of the condition discovered.

3. Possible effect of the condition. This refers to the result of the existence of the condition discovered.

4. The measure to remedy the unsatisfactory condition or to strengthen the favorable one. These are actions or suggestions to be undertaken in response to the existing condition.

It is the process of organizing data into ___ is a chart representing This follows the textual
logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and It is called a tabulation diagram. the quantitative changes of analyses of each table in
classifications to a variable itself on in the research which may be
make them amenable to study and interpretation. comparison with another presented with
variable in a pictorial or condition, possible cause and
Presentation of Data diagrammatic form. effect of the
condition, and remedy.
Talligram
Graph Interpretation

Sets of numerical results should

usually be
presented as tables or pictures
Chapter 4’s complete title… What is this for? rather than included in the text
which may concisely
summarize information that is
𝑁 difficult to describe in words
𝑛= 2 ) alone.
Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of 1 + (𝑁𝑒𝑥
Data Tabular Presentation of Data

To compute the Margin

or Error / Sample Size

It uses statements with numerals or number to ___ can be arranged into

describe data, which focuses on giving categories that are not
attention to some important data to numerical. These are
supplement tabular presentation. categories can be
physical traits, colors, or
Textual Presentation of Data anything that does not
have a number associated
to it.

Qualitative

When a computed Pvalue is less than or equal to ___ are anything that can be expressed as a It is the process of breaking up
0.05 probability level, the researchers has to _____ number, or can be quantified. the whole
the hypothesis, therefore Chapter 5’s complete title study into its constituent parts
_____ is… of categories
according to the specific
questions under the statement
of the problem.
Quantitative Summary, Conclusions,
Implications and Analysis
Recommendations

5. Comparison of the findings with those of previous studies. This is the similar/totally different findings/results from previous researchers, or theory of an expert in the field, that are found in the Chapter 2 of the research paper.

Sample of Chapter 4: