A Textbook of

R. K. Rajput
 LA&MIPUBI CARONS(P)L¥D
tlg, Golden Houae, Daryagapj,

PJmoe: 0t1AS 6S 26 00
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JI. Leavitt Street. Bingham,

• Toohl Cont :0484 229 70 8t) PfA 02043, U9A
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e Byd•zabad(P/u›ne . 040•&4 7S 02 47›
e 6alaadbaz GSty iPhone . 0181•8M 12 T2T
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P &$tim r I tPfi es . 0tZ-24 01 E 4 l6, Z4 92 78 8g)

ZAZ•08¥t•336•AU"FOMOB7f4 I3NGfN€ERINC
E.1& tt4'iBODUC2'ION TO COM8U8rION Of &L a tGINR8

yoUowing x oditione ate aesees•ry Fe coznbuatio0 to take place :

S. Some meann to initiate mmbustion.

In apark ignition I£i.LI eogines• a carburettor generally supplier a combustible mixture and
time electric Tparâ from a sperk-p4ug initiates the combustion.

u It hang been observed through experiments thnt ignition of cherge is only pesaible within

The 'ignition limits’ eozzespozul eppmzimateJy to tboee mixtui e ratios, at lean and
zieh ends of the ecalo, whers the heel roleatmi by tbs spark is no longer aufficient te
initiate mmb'ustion in the neighbouring unburDt mixture.
e Pig. 2.46 ahea'a the igz›itioo liznita for h0drocxH me.

0 7 9 144 21 GO
Air-fuel falio

— The ignition limita are wider at increased teiriperatures because oY hiyler rates of
reaction end 8igtr thermal di irify cee@cierits o/ the mixture.
— the lower and uppar limita of ignition of the mixture depend upon the temperature oitd

libel mtto lies between atout 90 : 1 an4 7 : 1.

tie. coszauazzox z•aasoszsxox

In a 9.!. engine a aingle iutezieely ki4h teutperature Bpg¥k paaeea sczoae the olectrodee,
kavñ zg behioA a thia thread o£ fleme. £’roza this thio thzead, cmnbuatioo epzeads to the envelope

surroniu:ting canes. In the actual engine cylinder, the mixture is not at rest but i» in highly
turbulent cenditien. The fur6otrnce trend tR Jemeof o/ o deme iefo o rugged grit, hut

epeedtd up enormously.
 65

Actordinp to Ricardo, the combustion prmesa csn be imagined as if developing in the follow-

{ ) The gzowtb and developaieot of a aeIF-propagating nucleus of fltzne (igitifiun log). This
is a eheitiicn/ process and depends upon the following :
— The nature of fuel ;

— The proportion of tlse mhauet gaa ;

— The temgeratttre co-efEcient oF the Fuel •a., the relsttooskip between tetopezaturu
and rate of acceleration of oxid ation or b'urning.
fiil the spread of the Oame throughout the o mbuitioa Mr.
Fig. 2.47 st the p-8 diagram of a petrol engino :
p (bar)

Pig. 2.t7. Pressure-ctank eagle éiagzam ofe getrsl engine.

• Firot stage of combustion, the ignition leg, starts from this point end no pressure
rice ic rtoficeo6ie.
c B is the point where the pressure rim con f›e defeated. From this peint it deviates from
the sim ple eonipr@aion Imotoring) curve.
o The time lag between first igniting of fuel end the commencement of the main phaae
of wmbustion is celled the ported o/ incv6ntieii or it aioo knew ea lgtiltfon lag.
be time ia normally about 0.0016 eeeende. The maximum pressure ia bed at
abeut l2• after top deed centre point. Althnuph the point of maximum pressure
merki the completion of flame travel, it does not mean that at this point the whole of
tha heat of fuel he been Tibezgted, f'or on after the
gaeaage of the flazoe, aome further chemical ndjuaLments due to zeeeaociatinn, etc.,
s'ri)l continue te a greater or kBedegzee tluaughout the ezpaosion stzoke. This ie knovrn
as o/¥er 6zzzvsfzzg.
8 feet of engfne enrieblee on flame prapagetlon :
1. fuel-nor ratio. When W mixture ig mode teuwer or i enriched end aiif/ more, ltte
 67
L Fuel cbe*ce.
« The'udu‹/|ou peñodoftbefhel oMeAectibedelaypenod.
o The calorific vulue and the enthalpy of vsporlaatlon wlll affect the temperatures
achieved.

Due to excessively weak mixtures combustion be slow or may be timed. This ia

however obvious
There are biro comfii*sfion ohnormnfifirs, which are teas obvious :

o The eecoW abnormality is generally hnown as Rory and is a complex condition with
many fateta. A aimple explanation show that kneck mrs when the subnet portion
of the gua in tlu wrmboation rhaml+rr ia heated by combustion and ra:tiation ee thet i/a

com6uerion ia nof a‹anplerad be(ozs'I//r end a/ I/re iridorfion perñ ›cf JAcrt a s1muft••°n‹'+
explosion of the unburrtt gas will ocrur. ThiB ezplosien is accompanied by a
detonation Ipressure i wave whirh will be repeatedly reflected from tho cylinder
wallo rotting up n high frequency reeonancn which gives on audible noiee. The
dttnnation wave taoecs eat-e•e ve stre•s •»d alen destmya the thermal boundary
layer at th» qii«aer walls cousins overheating.
lNoto. Refer u› ertieleo 2.22 and 2.Z3 for details of pre•ig•ition and dotonntion •aap*<tiveiy.I

8H. OF BHGIHB VARIABLES ON IG2'tIE2ON

Ignition log tthe time lag bete'een ftrat igniting of fuel and the comnienmment of the
maio pheae of combustion) is not a peried of inactivity but in a chemical pm. The ignition lag
in terms of crank engles is 10° to 20° and in ter as of time, 0.0015 aeeend or an.
The dutatlon of Ignition lag depends on tht following facton :
1. FueL Igniti» ug aepends on chemical nature ct fuel. The higher the Sent' Ignition
Pempernt«re (5.i.7'.) of feel, longer IN ignition lag.
2. MI stiffs rAtlo. Ignition lag is the $malleet @r ft mixture ratio ah Nett ginez the
maximum 6•mprrntcre. Tisin mixture ratio is oomezW/ richer flea stored iometric

3. fnltlAi temperature and pressure. Ignition lag is reduced if the iaitia I temprra •
fare end pressure err intrensed (end theee can be increased by increasing the compres-

4. Tuzbu1eoé'o. Ipnifio/t lag ix col muc/t feeled 6y the turbulence.

Bparlc advance. In order to obtain maximum power from an engine, the compressed mix-
ture muat deliver its mnzimum preaiure at a tim* when the piaten ie about to commence ite
outward atroke end is nearest to T.D.C. i5ince there ia a time lag between the occurrence of spark
and thu burning of the mixture, the spark must M place 6eJre IR pisfuii refit's T.D.G. utt it
compreaaion etroke, i.r.. We aparh timing ie odvoneed. Uauelly tbe apnrk ahould occur at
obout 15° before T.D.C.

lag". ’fhe foetus oJecfing fire igziifioa tint ings are discussed as fo-llows
 L BngMmo 8uppow antagin bee en Gon mdvvoe of 8d * and gwaéog
6
gpeed in n r.p.a. Then titre available for initiation of combustion is seconds. Now if the
engine speed is increased to 2s r.p.s. then in erder to hece tlse aame time available for combustion,
an igjsition adven•e for 28 degrees is required Thus aa the engioe speed is increased, it will be
oeceaaary to advance the ignition pregreaaively.
z Mr lzt atrerigtls In general rich mixtures flare /oater. Hence, if the engine is operat-
ing with rich mixtures the optimum sparh timings must be remr6td, ne., the number of crank
miglt before T.D.C. at the time of ignition is decrexwed end the spark ours cfoaer to T’.D.C.
3. Puck-load operettas Ptrt-load operdation a apark-ignition engine ia affected by throt-
tling the inmaiing tharge. Due to throttling a amall amount ct charge enters the cylinder, and
the dilution due té residual gnsee is alse greater. In order to overmme the problem of exhaust
gas dilution and tise low eherge density, at part-load operation the «prick odoonce must br
increased
6 'type of fizeL Ignition delay will depené upon the tjrpe of Fuel used in the engine. I''‘or
tr zxioum power and emaomy o sfoic 6uraing /uef rteeds o âipf 'r sport advance IN a o Josh

Refer to 'ig. 2.40.

• Pre-igniñ tion tAe igaitioa of the homogeneous mixture in the eClin&•r, before IN
timed tgnifios spat oeruru, enticed by tin loom ouerheañny of ltte eombualiEle fixture.
For premature ignition of any local but-spnt to occur in advance of the timed spark
on the combustion atroke it nsust attain a minimum temperature of something like
700—

acorinp away the stagnant gaaea which normally protect the eoosbuation chamber
walln. The resulting incneged heat flow through the walls, raises the surface
temperature of any protruding pmrly cooled pert of the eAsmber, and thls there-
doze pr‹nrtde8 a roost potnt for pze-Ignition.
The initiation of ignition end the propagation of the flame fzent hooi the heated hot-
spot is aizuilar to ttint produced by the spark•plug when it fires, the only difference
between the hot-spot and spark•plug is their respective rusted o/ ignition. Thun, the
sparking-pluga provides a timed and controlled moment of ignition whereas the
heated aurJ'ace forming Lhe hoL-apot builds upto the igztition Temperature
during each

The early Ignition created by pm-igtitfloe e›rta d« the at time and the burnt gaees
reozain in the cylinder and thezef‘oze frrcreoaea I/ze /reof trane/er on /Ae chamber
+uafJa, ae o reeldf, /ñ e se /goifion /em//eratuce Neill r›ecur earlier and eorfier on each
aucueasiue eanipres#ian sfro£e. Oorreequendy, the peaL cylindor pzeseuze (wkich
normally occurs at its optimum position of 10°-l6° efter T.D.C.) will progressively
ndinnee its petition to T.D.C. where the cylinder pressure atid temperature will be
maximised.
POWER UKJT—AUTUkIOBTLL ENGINES

lgnlled by ho\ oepo$lt

-Cenbuston o$::

(B) D&onatlon,

„And ie spited... ..Osmne#m.....

— The accumulated effects of an extended ‹-ntnbuation time and rising oak

cylinder treasure and teitipereture ceuoo the aclf-ignition temperature te creep
further and further ahead of T.D.C., and with it, peak cylinder preserve, which
will now tokc place bctore 4.D.C. m that negative wont will A dane in ‹:ompre
crag the ‹cm- Auction products I Fig. 2.TO 1.
 10
0
0 20 40 60
B.T.DC. T.D.C. A.TD.C.
a.Mac. - Before top deed centre;
AT.Err= After log had cen\re.

3. Pre-Ignition la a dogle-<yliader e•gitte •<i\l zeeult In a needy mcioc/ion in greed •nr/

luden in o muifi lindrr rngine. Under theao conditions, when the engine is driven h•rd,
the unaffected eylinfan will mtinue te develop t elr ftdl pevrar end speed, and se eill dtag the
other

— Thua, the dangar of the iqjority ct cylinders operating efliciently while one or more
‹Cylinders are aubiotted to exreoriW pre-ignition is that the driver will only be aware
of a lose in apo*d and pomr and thtrvfore try to werk the engi•e hardtr to
compen- sate for this, wlfich ort1y interact tire pre-ignition eituatioa u0fif siezure
errors.

alight pleasure rim abnve the normal due to the ignition point and, therefore, the peak pleasure
seeping forward to the T.D.C. position where mezimum paw e ooei»n
 71

2. If pre-ignition era at the cane time aa the timed sparking plug fires, combustion wilt
appear as normal. Therefore, if ignition to nwttched-•ff, the englne woidd contintia to operate at the
same speed ae if it were ‹xintrolled by the conventional timed apark, provided the self-ignition
tempemture continued to eceur at the came point.
3. Over-denied sporfi-pfage out ermmt uf‹ es which ore Ifie mciv cevmc of pre•igoilian
chould be carefully avoided in the ertginec.
Teats for pre-lgnltlon

At present the amount of power that can & d‹rveleped m W ylindnr ct a r•nni engine ie
@ flit fia6ifffy oilo JI to detonate, i.e., just beforo the flane haa completed its mune
ecroas
the combustion Plumber •nd remaining uafnir t charge fires thnughout its maaa apontaneoualy

The result is a trriaendousJy rapid and local increase in preeaum which acts up pressure
waver that hit IN cylinder walls Cth arch violence that the walls emit a round lika a @J.
It is the ping thet manifests dotenatioa. T'Aus o ver•y sudden rise o/ pressure durieg
com6uatien oc-

Z'W regioa in whirA dtionntioii orñ curs @rtfirai removed min W oporñ ng pfug, and is
named the ‘detonation zone‘ end were tvitb srvcrr del:coeliac the inca k rarely make than orre
quarter the eIeoran‹:e r&ume.

c T'1se proeeaa/phenornerton of detonation or knocking may be explained by referring to

the Pig. 2.51, hich shows the crore-eettien of the co nbuatiori chamber wtth flame
advancing fmm the spark plug location A. The advancing Oame front compreaeee the
and charge 6B’O fecthost from tlio spark plug, tkus raiaiog ita teznperatuze. ’T'he
to tperaturo of the end ehazge atao increases due to beat tzaoaFer from tho hot
advancing fleme frent. Alae come prellame oxidation may take pleee in end charge
leading to further incnase in ite temperature.
If tln end charge 8fl“D uachee iñ onto-ignition temperature and remains fer aome
time to mniglete tho preGomo reactions, the charge will autoignits leading te ânoesittg
eom6vsfion. During the preflame reaction peried the ftamo front could move from 88’
to M, errd the kneek meurs due te auto-ignition of the chazge ehead of GU’. Here
we have combustion imaecor0panied by ftume producing a very high rate of p ure ri4e.
72

Ptg. 2.61: Tonfm&ion tthMaking.

• The pressure-time diagram of detonating combustion in 8.I. engines in drawn and

o Thu ’iiifecsiJ @ detonation’ will depend mains upon the mount o/ energy
comniard ia the end-mixture’ and IN re • o/ cLmienJ reaction tofiiefi mfenacs if in
W j'hrzo p/

Lbe deumariaa coz•zneaoe , tbe maz• imbuzmt end-mtxtaze will be evadsble to toteadfy
the detonadw As little ac 5 par ceat of the total mixture char8e whezi sp‹mtaneouaJy
 71
my Auto•lgnltlon theory. Auto-ignition refeia to initiation of combustion Without the nw•
cessity of a flame. The auto-ignition tlseoy of knock assumes that the flame velocity is normof
before the oneef-of auto-ignition and that gaa vibmtioita are cmated by a nurnfier of end-gas ele-

liil Detonation theary. In the eoto-ignition nicer, it ii aaauinod that tho flome
velocity is nortnsl before the onset of auWignition whereas in detonation theory a true Aionofirip
wane formed by preflnmc rnactiona has been proposed as tnc mechanism for explosive unto-
ignition. Such a shock wave would travel through the chamber at about twice the aonic velocity and
would compreae the glens te prsseures and inmperatutee whore the reaction should be practically
instnn-

In fact lrnecking or detenafion is a mmplex pbenernooon azrd no single explanation moy

be sufficient to explain it futly.
2&,4. ESaota of £netoxtntlna
1. Noise end roughness.

4. Fncreaae ia beat tzaoa£er.

S. Decrease in power output and efficiency.
6. ignition.

The detonation can be eontrollerl or even stopped by the following methods :

3. Reducing preasuru in the inlet manifold b'y throttling.

4. Making the ratio tm lean or tm rich, preferab(y latter.
â . Enter rtfecti•m Water injection inTreageg the del•y period as well as reduces the
Oame temperature.
6. Uan of hipb octane fuel can eliminate detonation. High octane fuels are obtained by
adding edditivee known as dopea (such aa tetra-ethyl lead, bensol, xylene etc.), to petrol.
Fig. 2.4B shoa'e normal combustion, detonation azsd pre-ignJLiozu

L Puol choice. A low sell'-ignition temperature promotes knock:.

Z Iaduc€ioo pzeeauze. Increase of pzeaauze deereaaes the eelf-ignition temperature and
the induction peziod. Ttnodr will tond to occur at flNl Ihradle.
3. Ezigtae epeed. Ww online epeeda will Evo how tucbulonce and }gw flame velocities
teombustion period ia constant in angle) and lmock may occur at lnxv apee&

knor£.
Mfztiire strength. Optim are mixture strength givoz high preeaures and promotel
74 Au7OI IOBtLE ENG\fiEEBtHo

7. £iomhnatlon chamber deg Poor design gives long flame paths, pmr turbulence

& Cylfader cooling. door cool w raiaes tbe mixtwe t xtperetwe and pmmoM kaock.

Pecformanm numtar is a wJi meea«ra o/ dctonofioa index. it has been developed

from the option of Dunk limited indicated nieen effectivo pmaaure this1, when inlet
pace-

fuel

9Ab B¥OBBBT' UBBPUI. ODBPBBBB7ON RFTTO fBUCR)

Ake bGgbeat uaatbf eozopzaaa4oa xatfo ia f/ie /sigñ eaf compression ratio emy/oj/ed of

L2& COMBU8TIO2'f G8AMBBB DB8IG2'f—B.I. BNGINEB

(G)CombusMeo@*omDorxndpwMnoownehepe.

The following are the otjjecta of good combustion chamber design :

In order to achieve these fundamental req nants It in Imperative to be aware nf the

• 8 eird i* fAe rofationnt ;7otm o/ cAnrgn within the cylinder aboct iia axis.
POWER UNIT— A UTDMDBTLE ENGG IM 75

e 3/rirJ is generaua by netz ucting the intake eyatem to

give a tangential component to the intake flow as it
enters the cylinder. This is derie by stooping end
eontouring ffu•

• @viri greott2 enhanera the mixing of air and fuel to give

u homogeneous mixture in the very ahort time available
for thia in modern high apeed englnsa. It in also z main
mechanism for spreading of the flame frertt during the
combustion process.
The induction ports are ciaaiified as follows : Refer to Ftp. 2.54.

4. Element port. The intensity ef svrirl is influenced by the

eteepneaa of the port helix and tise mean diameter of the
apiral dow path about tbe valve exis.
— Helical ports ust ty provide Aigfvrr ,M diachorges Fig. 2.b8. Induction evrtri.

pertr the theft periphery of the valve open-

ing area csn be fully utilized, and, in a reault, higher velurristric efficiencies ecu
be obtained in the tour-to-mid speed range of the engine.
— There porta ere &s aensifivz fo iAeir position mfotine R W yfiti6rr ‹xcis since
the swirl generated depends mainly on the port geometry above the valve and
not how it enters the cylinder. Generally, the magnitude of awirl riaes with
increased valve lift.
76

atroke, the voluzise amund the outlet edges of the

eozisbuatino elinmher is sudden reduced to a very small

e1r*vt of the clenranm volume near the centrelino of the

cylinder. As the piaton JT.D.C. the gas
mixtur

to neor zero. f'hiu radiat in teard motion of the gae

miowe i* e zfftd ’. It 88m to otiser muse
muttons

spread the flame front. Fig. 2.66 shows a typical

mmpreeaion a9uiali.
M ftse piston nears T.D.C. equish zAotion generated a
Eig. 2.66. Coayzee•lon

e The que•ch area In defined by the parallel portion of the pieton end blinder head
wJfi olmnsi back eoeA of8er or W piston qpproocfves TO. i'7. Theee opposing ilat
eurfacee eandwlchlog a thln lamina ot chatge betwea• them, he ve e Merge
i«Jm
 77

amount of heat transferred fmm this thin lamina of hot charge through the metal
wolla. 2'he result is a rapid ceelirtg or qusnchieg effect, by thme parallel surfaces.
The quench area ia defined as pemeofoge o/ opposing /iof ore• w/ofiue fo fJie pains

Rg. 2.68. Intake tur6ulsnt mixture flow. Rg. S.6f. Illustration rifteuparimpon d

Aa Lhe vortices whirl thay will contact adjacent vortices causing viaeoua ahear intamction.
Thia rapidly speeds up the rate of her t transfer and fuel mixing.
The smount of vortnx activity, that it the fermution of now vortices and the disintegration
of others, increnara ffir Turbulent ox will rzaing ezlgine @frcd.
— Turbulence playa a yep important role in combustion pbnnomenon in S.I. lee well
C.f.} engines. The ftatne speed is vezy low in no•-turbulent rniatiirn. A turbuRnf

burned and urthorned portions in the fame from ldiffusien). These two factors
nauae the velocity of tiirbtxlent fleme to increase practically in proportion tn the
turbulent velocity. The turbulence of the mixture is due to admission of fiiel-air
mixture through comparatively nsrrow eectiens of the intake pipe, valves etc., in
the auction atrokv. The tiirhuience cm be increased ct the end of the
cumpreesion stroke by suitable design of mmbustion chamber which involves
the geometry of cylinder head and piaton crown.
— The degree of turbulence increaeee di•ecify with the piaton apeed.
effects of turbulence can be aummed up aa follows :
Turbulence ateeleratez chemical netter by intimato ninng of fuel and oxygen. Tina
scot mixturee ean be bvrat.
2. The inczeaae of‘ flame speed due to turbu)euce reduces the cambueâon time and hence
minimises f/te fendenc-y to de/onofe.
J. Turbulence increase the heat flnw to the cylinder wak and in the limit e eive turhu-

Bsseeaive turbulence reettlte in the maze rapid pzeaaure ziae fthough maximum prea-
scre raay fa \owezed\ and the high pzeaaure nu cauaae tho wankske/t a epriug and
zeet aF the engtne o vibrate with kigh periudicity, zeattlting in lough ond cafes' mnniug

Typical flame pmpngation velocitlee raitge frotit something like IS to 70 mls. Thie
would relete to the eombenton fiume velocity increasing from abAut IS Inta at an idlt
cpeed of‘ about 1000 r.p.at. to roughly 70 mls at a zoazfioum speed oF 6000 r.p.m.
W'/Dec sgniAon oeeura ihe nucleus o/ ffie /?ome spzeada ruit/t Size whirling or ralaling

'7'Ae speed of tea fame propqgatton ia roughly proportional to the ueloaisy at the

Induction awirl cen be generated by taoyntially the air movement inte

the cyli•dmeitbm by meeting a prmwirl intha induction port or by combining the
tangential- dkected Seva with a preewlrl helkel port. ”6yfirrder cis swir?” ia defined oa
afie ong«for

— Heliml ports can achieve swirl ratio of 8 to 6 at T.D.C. with a flat piaton crown.

5 6 7 9
9urfa‹>V\roIume ratio

chamber, the chamber volume nbould be iri•ximiaed relative to ita surface eiea, that is,

p Me com6uaf/bn chamber {E'ig. 2.68). The eurface•to•voJuote ratio is the rails a/tke

The surface-to-ulutne zatio increases forty ruif/t r siug compression rofio.

 79

c For vnrioua engines the stroke•to•b re tf. : D) ratio can rango from 0.6 : i to 1.4 : 1.

— 9/hen6 < D, the G • D ratio ia mid to be nrezsguaze ;

e "Ouerrguore* engines ore more su*to6Je f'or soJoon cor pefro/ engiztes, u'hezeas
“urtdcrsquare" engines are 6e£/er uUf/aed /or large dieeet eu,gines.

u When eonipreaaion ratio increaaea from 6 : 1 to 10 : 1 the cylinder's comprecsinn

pze»sure increases from 8.0 bar to 10.0 bar respectively IFig, S,5&1. C'.erreapendlrigly, the
maximum cylinder pressure inc from 32 bar to 82 bar and b.m.e.p. generated alee
increaeea from 9.4 bar to 11.8 bar orer the same cernpreaaion range respectively.
o The effect of higher cylinder pressure is tO €a 8 GO ponding rice in blinder
temperature fzam 360°C to S20°C over the same cozapressioo ra1zio roe. Raiaiog the
cylinder temperature reduced the ign\tion delay period for one aet enkine speed
(f'ig. 2.60). Titus. for an engine running in its mid-apeed raoge, the ignition tinting
wxin1d bn reduced from 3†.6° to t2.5° beforn T.D.C. if its tompreeaton ratio is

50
@12

” 10 30 @ 15
- 10 10
5 6 7 6 B 10
Compression ralio Comprc6eion rago —+
Fig. 2.S9. Effect nf rompreaaion ratio on the b.m.e.p. thg. 2 60, Fi(feet eteompie mon tatlo on the
rompraaoion and maximum cylinder prcaaures. eir tempemture end ignidon leg.
e The effects of compression ratio un the charactonstic pzoaeure-Hume diagram aod the
characteristic pzeeeure-crank angle rtiapam For e pstzo! engine are ahown in Big. 2.61
and 2.62, zeapecti•ely.
n The mair reoeoa f'or ra icing the engine eornpieeaion retie k due to the increased
deriaify of the oir-fml ni ixture at the paint of igniiion, co thet when the energy in
refenacd if is 6eiter ammed. It /Rre@re, wires 6oIA iR ezine tMrrrral effu•n‹::y' and
the developed power.
 e e e e e s 9 e a -• °
70

T.DC. &D.C 80 40 20 0 20 40 60
Crank-ample rroverrant (dog) —+

the theft&&i ticPresuum•volume dl•gr•m be praasum•erarth-Artglediagram

for a petrol engine. for a potroi engine.
• 'I've merits end limitations of raising tfse coiupreeaion retio with regards to thertrial
efficiency end mechanical efficiency are shown in Fig. fl.T8, wbereas Fig. S.64 shows
the 6eneJza of increased power and reduced specific feel consumption with riaing
eotnpreaaion ratio.

0 6 10 16 20 9 10 11

S.8S. B&'eat ofmmpmc•inn ratio on an Fig. 2.84. EFect of comprezaion on engine

powar engim'a t1ga•uie1•nd meefi••iml eDieienciw and e ecifir fuei
consumption.
for NJ. engines' combustion design police, aommnrify, the /otfo‹cing ore required :
1. The amnlleet ratio of chamber suzféce-erea to chamber volume ma poanible ... to minis
mior Wi Uses to IN cooling eastern.
2. The shortest ilarne-froitt travel dfat»te nc poaaible ... fe minimise the ceia6uatioa period.
8. Thu provision for quenching the mixture furthest from the sparking plug ... to present
tW end ouerfimti g. However, it muat not be exoeaaive sa this would prevent the
end-gaaea burning and, therefore, it would eauae a high level of hydrocarbons to be
expelled to the exhaust.
 81

4. The muat central sparking plug position poeeiblv ... to minister IN Anne greed paid
for. alterneteJy. min ptugs eati be used to achieve the same objective).
S. The location of the spariung plug should be as dose in to the exhaust valve as possible
... to marizriisr fler femperoftirc qf W mixture surrounding W ap•nting plug
efe‹Jrodts.
6. 'he incoming mixture rnuat have adequate sa4ri tbut not hxt znuch as this could Jeaa
o exceeai\•e heat loaaaB) ... /o mar he air and /izr/ ropñfiy and znñmau7y.
7. Thc pmñsox fotzQamhronee-.MercMAm TueinfoosoM
o/fIuHnoejmf
before file corit6uefioc oecore.
8. The provision ter weling of tho exhaust valve ... I› preorti ot'entie ting, dkforting, ord
burning occurring.
9. ThtpnnidxfximmmmgflmhdmrgetosueeppaAsmd-lGegpm4dsgpug• m
trodes ... fo avnid pre-ignJion vn6er widr liitfr opening.
10. The utilisation of the highnat possible compreaoien retio ... to m‹iximfie IN engiae'a
Ihermat ef'fIeieri‹:y without promoting deMnation.
11. The iniet and exhaust valve aizea and nowhere abound be adequate ... ro erpe/ W er-
heuzt•gaxec arid to fill the cylinder mite the maximum meas of fresh charge in IN

12. 31e degree of turbulence mated ahou!d be contzo)led ... /o preuecf ecceseicefy Aigh
rates of' burning and, correspondfJzgty, limit ue high rofieaof pzeear/re ifiae icñicñ
x'ou/d cause rorigk and not running.

A ft representative Lypes of combustion chambers of which thaze are oiany more vecia-

i. 'i"-head combustion chamber.

2. head combustion ehamt>er.
8. I-head for overhead valves combustion chamber.
4. N-head combustion chamber.
It may be noted that these chambers ere designed & o6min IN o{tieetit›es nomeiy :
o A high combustion rote at tftr ed rt.
• A high our -to-uofume rofio near the end of burning.
• h rather ‹:entra fly law:ated •parh pluy.

tiii Very prone to detonation. There was violent

detonation even at a tompreasion ratioof4 lwith
a fuel of ottane number of t0t
82

2. •he d ombeutlon chamber. Ttefer to Fig. 2.88.

o It is a m‹xiificatien of thy T-head ef combustion chamber. It provides the two

valves or W arose aide o/ W pms&•r, and the valves are operated through tnppet by

• Pig. 2.80 to) azid Ib) shoxrs two t of this side-valve engine. In theae types ii is enay
to Unto&e ffif c«fnr -Wnnnt witls the detachable head, it may be noticed that th
‹:ylin&r feed cen &• removed Jr cleaning or dec rburtsi g without dkturbing ualt›e

ii Fig. 2.8fl let, the air flow haa to takre two gbt-angled turns to enter the blin-
der. This cause a Inca of velodty heed, and a los» in turbulence level. resulting in

— Fig. 2.88 (6) is the Etc rd 's turbulent deof . The iriain body of the

during Qtr compression afroR. This deaign reduces the knecâ ind fender â 2
a8ortening M earn tzuvei k gtk by bringing that portion of the heed

between the rolsuvely eeol picton and she emled hendllooes ito heat rapidly, thereby
avoiding kuocL By placing thu cperk plug in the cantrn of the e8ettive
mmbustion epaoe hut with slight blae towazda tke ezhauat valve, the flame
tzave4 length ie

lil More curfeee-to-volume ratio and therefore more kms.

Uni) Valve aise zeatrictad.

(iv) Thermal failure in cylinder bleck alse. In £-head engine the thermal failure ie confined
 83

3. I•head (or overhead velvet eambus4fen chamber. Refer to Fig. S.67.

WiB type of combustion chamber kcs bob the ia!et valve eat the
exhsu4t valve located in the cyliader kead. An overhead engioe is eupeztor to

mil Higher volumetric efEcieacy (si»ce the larger va4ves ant larger

(iiii Loas prove to deteziation lsinm the path of Name travel is reduced).

age of compzesaion oz' jackat watez. flag. 9 67.7-kead

tvj Lower surface-volume zatto aod, tl›etefore, lose heat loea aad lese ’°'“^'" ’“
air pollution
{ui) Eaaier to met.

m In aucft a eembustion chamber one valve is in head aud other in Ute block. Thia design

c One of the most perfect #-head engines (wedge type) is the one uaed by the Rover
coiripany for eeverel yeen. Its odvoafoges are :

(iii) High therreel efficiency.

tint It csn operate on leaner air-fuel ratios without mi4Iirin
The d of this design is the complex mec8uniam ;'tir oprrotioa o/ txtft'es ord erpen-

t'tote 1. mo&m engine hats divided rhtmhrt. Tlima cite âfgâ «›fwrictr • eJm *•r. @ef
ccenemy, and e•mte Bretton 6ifdy. Their malndt*eduoofogc* ategreoier 8eer loss, due ie high surface
area, azid high coal and difficufy in mrnas
R. Ysr lerge erigiz›m em Fluent e2waju C.I. engines. Guru of tlflr lnrgo emnhuction ‹:heaiben
end cerreaponding loot flame facet diatanm, combined with M enginc speed, tlsey would teqtñn very high
octane fuel and very low common r•tio if opar4ted •s an fi.I. migine. Wlth the very lnxig roar time of
combuatton in tfn cylinder, It would be lmpo*mble to avoid am•ioue knock prohleme.

c Some engines bays divided combustion thembere, with about 80 percent of the
clearance volume in the mnln chamber above the piston and about M percent of the
vo1tlme as a eeoond chamber connected through o smart oriifice (Fig. 2.80).
Combmtion is sforced ia flit amof/ oecondory cWmber, onzf zAe /{oirie thru pnssea
ihougA to crib, trire it igoitra in I n‹a th m6tr, Intake awirl in not as important
in the main chamber of this type of engine, eo the intake system can b•e designed for
greater volumetric efficiency. It is desirable to have eery high swirl in the secondary
chamber, arid the orifice between the chambers ie shaped to supply tbia often, the
secon&u•y cfuzra6er is o laird cl Arr”. As the gaaes in the eemn chamber
are consumed by eonxbuation, the preaaure rices and flaming gaa expands betk through
tbe orifice and acts aa a Arch ignition for the main chairiber. ’Fhe ezp•nding gaa
thing bend through the orifice creates a l•rgo secondary awirl in tho rnnin chamber,
 AVTDMO8ILB BfJ01I4BBIt1NO

j/aiens is des@n¥d ¥o ¥uyp{y e rts& ztttsrure in zhs eeeo ehom0er aad e feao

back tbzooab tbo o¥ gce wttt tboa iaztité tbe leaa zzitztare ia the roads rhember, a
‹dren e› Ies• ti›u a w«a4 s• ‹tua••lc ‹o izan» «t› a na k•otas «bas. sbs
 85

goluNoa. kTaalrauzo diefiuzoe of flazoe tzavel

= x 10.â + = 6.T an

'I‘ime oF Oaate trmel - S.007B x 1& ^ a

= g.6076 x 1@' x 7200 = 36.B76 deg.

’I'ime for cao+busboa a demgop - 8s aanh
=y ar 0.80Z8 x IN a

= 0.0028 x 1@* e + 9.60?6 x 10- ^

of tAe ualae ot (ull Iñ-rottle,est nate Me opñmum 4porh fimiug IFRS m‹sximumpazeer
fifimfi|;er

Themm)mmflenpsiod-IV#o4•T.D€.a18•sTD „17.

time thus igziitien timiag shenld be arranged en that the total of 11 + lT .« 28°, ends l8’ n1'.D.C.
 AUTOM0B1LE SNLWEERINO

*0 Mall Ntrottte ka4f speed will zeeutt In an iacreeae of 14a in deity time over tket xt full
tbcottle balr speed i,e., by

ToU4peñod=J954+J7=Q954•iendis13oT.D.C

The eempresaion ignition (C.I.) engine waa developed by Dr. Rudolf Oieeel, hs got s pstent ef

— Rmall and medium electric power genemtion ;

o C.I. aagiae fñela {dJeed oiia) aha !eaa arpmaix• th•o B.1. eogioe fuela {Patrol or
kne}. ¥”uztJseraiore, ctoce C.I. eogtaee fue\e have a Mgher specific grants theo petzol,
and aim fuel is cold en the volume heels (litrea) and not on Haas bsnia (kg), more hg
of fuel per litre ezo otrtui ed in pumhasing £LI. engine fuel.
Due to tha above inantto ed acton the tvenip ce+r o/ C.f. er m« ie met ten ti›«n SJ.
engines and in a mnmquenee thsae engines find wide application in industrial, transport and

• A C.f. engine it cot mccli ;' voure6 in po ay r cera dye to ffrt stewing re curia :

— In view of the utiliaetien of bmvier cempreeaion ratieo (12 : l to 22 : I compared to

6 : 1 to 11 : 1 of 8.I. I the henxy foreea act on the parta of the engine and
POWER UKTT—ALfTOMOBTLE ENGTbIM fi7

These factom make the engine heavier.

— The iiieorripfefe com Auction o{ fietero,geneous rriirfcre, end droplet eombuutio n

o C.I. engines are insniifaeLured in the following rsnge of apeeds, sp+reds and power out-

2 B.P. to 4QXiti B.P.

s The pm of combustion in the Connexion Ignition IC.I.) engine is fundomontaily

difFerent from that in a spark-ignition engine. In C.I. engine combustion ‹mums by the

Per this a minimum mmpreeston ratio of l2 is requlmd. The efficiency of the cycle
inweaaez with higher values of mr preasion ratio but tha maximum pree•ure reached
in the cylinder elao increases. This requires heavier censtroction. T'he upper limit of
eompreaaion ratio in a C.I. engine ia due to sechanitai factor and ia a compromise
between his efficieny and low weigbt and cert. The nomei eompreaaion ratio are
in the range of 14 to 17, but may be upto 29. The air-fuel raties uaed in the C.I. engine
lie between 18 and 2S as against afoot 14 in the B.I. enginn, end Sure C.f. engines use
bigger nod fienuier Jr the some poor tin fi.f. engines.
u lii the C.I. engine, the inteke is air arose and the fuoi is injected ct high preavure in the
forei of line deplete near the end of compreaaion. This leads to dell period in the C!.I.
enginn, is greater than that in the S.I. enginn. The pArtiomenon of combuation iii
in C.f. engine i» explained below.
Bach minute droplet of fuel as it enters the highly heated sir of cylinder ia
quick ' aiirmunded by an envelope of ita own v0pour and this, in at an
appreciable intewal ia inoamed at the aurfece of the envelope. To evaporate the
liquid, lutent heat ie abstracted frem the aurrourrding air which reduces the
tem- peratuze of the thin layer of air surrounding the drogJot, end aomo tiase muat
olapee before thia temperature can be raiaed again by abstracting heat from the
main bulk of air in tbia vicinity. As as thia vapnur and tht air in actual cnntact
erith it reach a certain temperature, ignition wi)l take place. Once ignition has
been started and a flaeie eateblialied the heat required for further evaporation
will be supplied from that released by combustion. The vapnur would be burning
as fast as it can find freih ozygen, i.e., it milk depend upon the rate at tech if is
mouing thro gif tfir n • or fit nor is mein g i if-
— Iti the C.I. engine, the fiiel ie not fed in at once but ia epread over a definite peried.
The first arrivals meet air whoae temperature is only a little above their self-
ignition temperature and the delay is more or less pmlonged. The later arrivals
firid air at ready heated to a far higher temperature by the burning of their
predeceaaora and therefore light up ntuch m•re quickly, aJmuat as they iasue
from the injector nozzle, but their subsequent progress is handicapped for there
is less ozygen to find
— If the air within the cylinder were motiortieaa, only a amall proportion of the
fuel would find sufficient gen, for it is itnpoaaible to distribute the droplets
uniformly throughout the coosbuation apace. Therefore come air movement is
abeolutely eevefitiai, as in the S.I. engine. But there in e fundamental difference
between the
 A ITOMOBTW MGTNEEAINO

air movements i• tits two e of enginee. Irt tbs B.I. angine we cell it i«rbafce
break up the aurf•ee of tfso flame frnnt, and to distribute the shrada of flame
throughout am ezternel(y prspand combustible mixture). In the £LI. engine we

or without come eddying or turbulence, m cs to bring a mntinuoua supply of fresh

nir to each burning droplets and sap awe the products of combustion which

c The deter peried ii munted trem 1 e atert of injection to the point where the pt mm-
lmntion curve dapcrts from &r mmprmelon (or no ignition or motoring) elude.

Tbe pedod o£ siozJ d¥foy• fa tic lime brfc<en thr 0«ginnizg a/ iqJ cfion oxd fhr
adaJzsmen£ o/'chemical reacfion condifionn. In tke phyaicat delay period, the fual ia

Ilt may be noted thet the lgnldon In the fl.I. e glne ia ueantially equivalent
 POWER UI•fJT—AUTOkfOBfLA E?O£NES ti0

2. Purlod of mpld or uncontrolled eambnatlon. The, eemnd stage of ‹ximbu»tioo in

O.l. eagirrea. after the del•y period, ia the period pt tepid er uncenfr&ted cemfiuatina. Tide period
ñ counted /root the end o/ W deJ period tn lR pofnf o/ imurri pressure on W indicofer
dingmm. In this eeeend at•ge of eemhurtion, the nan of i• reptd booeueo during the delay
period the dtopltte of II have had time to i d thetn»elvee out oxet a wide rna and they have
fresh air sll around tbtrii. About one-tlsird of heat is avolxed during this process.

9. Paztod at eootzotfed <oosbaattoz At tbe ead o£ second stage of combustion, the

terapezatuee aod preaaure, aze ao bigh tbaL the fuel droplets ipjectad ia t1te Lbizd etage buro

i.e., by the i jeeRao rate.The period of controlled coaibuation ia aaauraed to end at osaximum cyc)e
uuopemuus•Tbe keac evolved by tbe ead of cootzofled ambustiaa i• a1mzt 70 to 80 per ceoc

of fuel particles Thia burning iiigy ‹x›ntinue in the io• stroLe upto TO° to 80°
of crank travel frot• T.D.C. This cnntiniied burning, called the a/trr borning, may
be mnaidered in the ifburtfi ctoge o/ W combustion. The total heet evolved by the end
of entire combustion proeeea is BS In 07'ifi ; 8 to 5R of heat goes ss unbuamed
fuel in e•heuzt.
In the p-Y diagram, the atages of combustion are not on because of little movement
of piston with crank angle at the end and reversal of zteoka. So for studying bthe
eombua-

uaod. In tiso actual diAgrem, tha various stages of combustion look emerged, yet
the individual stege ia diatiriguisheble.

(1)
(t)

f5)
 110) Engine size.
111) Type of combustion chamber.

.FUNDAMBNTAL8OPTBBCDMBUBMONPROMW8DNDD8BRLEN0INES

• The Jr output of a diesel eñ ngine ‹xiatmlled by ging iRadult oI Jul «pmy

iqjecfed into o ‹;yfinder ;'ilied u th cempreu4ed and heated air whenas the petrol en•
ginr ia controlled by lftrottting the pre-md eWrge ea •riog IN yiin‹frr.

— It has No observed that injection usually commences l6° te 20‘ befere T.D.C.
when both cylinder preaaures end tcmperntoros are much lever. As an ezoropfc,
a is : i comp ion ratio engine would bava something like 600°C maximum
tem- perature at T.D.C. but at l6° before T.D.i2. tltia would only emeunt to
fi30°C.
— Further it cart be aeeu fhet the pressure aud temperetuze riae in the cylinder with

The alnRiel itiixttire formation, m the dinael eoginn, is of a W6rpgeiteo s natures, that ia,
it is locally concentrated at serious sites and is therefore urierzai,y diatri6ufed throughout fR
cylinder and eombuctian chamber.
— Injected fuel app perretratea the highly eempreaaed and heated air mess where it is
pulveneed nto mnny ve+•X azaalt droplets la a lorelleed £orozatioo. Tbo •zIs1ng oI the
lomhaed spray of I\tel droplets In tbe bat aJr change cauaae atoichlometeric (14.7 : 1
by weightJ éir-fuel ratio cotabuation zones to be established which are completely
aurtounded by gala air- only. Thus tbe overall \avemged out) air-fbeI mJxture rado
raage roay
from a rich, full load, 20 : 1, to a weak no•load, 100 : 1, ainfuel ratio.

t Towards the end of the mmpreeeion stroke when injection of the futl inte i • tembue-
tion chamber cosimencea, the quantity of fuel diechazged is spread oot eser a predeter-

c The t«el aprsy enters the hot combustion chamber but dees not immediately ignite,
instead it breaks up into very small droplets fPig. 2.701 and once theae liquid
dreplete are formed, ter ou6r aoJ‹v>•z sitf immedi«slt amri to evoporoie to there
oil/ & o fiquid core curroundcd wifA o four o/ ropour. At this point it sbouid be
explained that the burning of e hydrocarbon fuet in err is purely an oxidation
process. Thiia, initially,
heat liberated from the oxidetinn of the fuel vapour is less Whoa tfic rete ct which If in
e=frncted 6y c•oMieri ord cnnductie , but eventually a crifie& temperature ia reached
when the rate o/ generated 6Y oridniion erorm'fs iL King dreary ted @
convex-
fifiR fi£fin. M a Te8lt, lR WmJWlflm m whit, in to. B 8 up be
oxidation process thus further increasing the heat released until a i nine aite or ante
 91

on•eaIabtiah«d, this Ix'ing knowzi as the i zsitioo azid the temperature at which it
occuza ie called the aeff•i$zziNozs tezopezaMze of the fuel under those condition. 7he
headrequired fi›r //•f er euopozotzon of the fuel draple/r w”dt Ifiiea be providedfrom
ñeot zvleaaed bfi' the oxidation pro4esa,ichiah ie refizr-red fio as cazabaatlozu

{c)Fue!epaydBndiontitharmñR

offue
{b}Nanow.ep l8 d elpenwbaâon
Pig. S.70. Injected fuel spray characteriatim.
• The liquid cum, now surrounded by layers of heated vepour. oxidises burns as fact as
it can ; that is it finda fresh nxygen to keep tfie chemical reaction going on.
• When the phyinnl 6e/ny to consort the fuel apray into tiny droplets and the eM ei•
ca.I reoeNoo delay Lo eetabTzeh igrzitron Thom the initial aridetion process aze over, the
role o/ turning is deyrideai or the apced of w6tcA the dropkts •re moving ffireugA
the air or ltte oir k moving pact the droplets.

frirrenae in compression mtce exercises the follovng e@ertr :

o The cylinder compression pressure and temperature increase ; the igr'ition tiw e lag
between tho point of injection to the instant when ignition firat eotriaienees redux+
o The density and turbulence of the charge increoae, and this iricreosra th row o/
turn- ing •nd, aec•r6ingiy ffie rate o/ pressure riae end iR otngnifudr o/ the peah
‹cylinder pre4eure rmrhed. The characteristics of the pressure rise relative to the
piston stroke or crank-angle movement is illustrated in Fig. 2.71 and Pig 2.7fl.
 ArrruktpsirE exnixEzxixn

o Thermal efficiengy and the specific fuel consumption an impro tPig. 2.7gi
• 2tataitig tompreeslen ratio results in redwfioa in the mecfianirot entered as ahown
i• Fig. 9,7J (aisle the higher cylinder preeeures increase the pumping leoeee, friction
loeoeo a•d x -preaaion and ezpnnaion leeoee as more erork is done in squeezing te-

10

T.CtC. &OC
 R

1.0

10 12 14 16 ‹e
 ANTDMOBLE kDGTNRER7NG

u The time takan to establish and ignite z rile of vopour aurreunding e liquid droplet in
pr•ctimflJ independent o/pit oize o W dropRf. He 'ever, the rule o/turning and mrre•

u A compromise sust be sade to moinfnin aunt droplet size {and, therefore, mo•
mantum no that a fresh nupply of nir mmes eonfinuoualy i•to contact with the
shrink- ing aize of the uaburnt portions of the l$quld droplata) and to have avoidable
«u rif

• It ia poeaibl0, to come eztant, tn eo•tml the dmplet aize by the ipjeetion oeadle
apriasg cl<aisg load. Generally N›e greater the tnjmtor epring load, ltte smaller and
finer will be the droplet eise, whereas a light spriog needle load tends to produ‹x coarae
liquid dzop-

zaa or z•szuoo ‹or mxzzsox Mac› ozs oz sxczuea

• In C.I. {mmpregnion ignition) engine, the fiiel which is in atomiaed fnrm ie con.sidarably
solder thnrt the hot mmpreooed air in the cylinder. Although the actual ignition in al-

aad Me pzeaaure dâ ea lfas r/ae f›eynnd Efre r•otue it iz'oofd /toue due fo compression a/

• fz+ O.1. engine, tke length of the deity pectod pla¥a e wital role. 7'ñ is fifiertad semec o

— The detay period affeeta the date of praceuce riae and heneo knocking. It aleo eBecta

— 8ome del•y perhxt is necessary otherwise the droplets ieould not be diaperaed in
air for complete combustion.

fail T6 areal3 eztent the fineno of the fuel spraf.

• Z7•* delay fnr/eoaes w/z/f food 6ur ia or murh o@erfe¥ Y i/tiec£ion jsreseure.
 95

engine speed, type of tombuetlon chamber, md iqjection advance are dices below

whi1 afTecta the defy period.

— A toi«er S.I.’7', meo/se a roide morgic 6efzoeen it ahd JAe 7emperafur o/ com-
preaaed air oud §enz'e fouler delay jx'r/od.

tion. Cetane number depends on the cAemfcai eorripneitioa o/ / •/. The more

c The other fuel properties which affect delsy period are :

tiil Latent heat ;

liii) Viscosity ;

— Ynfotif end tribal heat aBéet the time tea & iform no envelope @ vnpour.
- The oimms%g ondxuMtwe Ceneioc UUDueooe tbe knew o,Fommn%onom.

a 7nczv•+e in infg£e ferztpe-tube wonld reault in increase !n coropteaaed air temperature

dewiiy.
— With incrraae in compresainn ratio, temperature nf air lnczeaaea. At the same
time the minimum onto-ignition temperature deereaeea due to inezeaaed density
of compressed air resulting in char contact of molecules which thereby reduces
the time of rusction when tuel ie irtjected.
— As the di re bet 'cert ccmprezzed efr temperature and minimum ou4o•igni-
tion temperature increases, twit delay period derrensea.

z lDoley pmnoA‹urn br@ven either o tems ofodmofufe fime Gn miUimrmndM oxcmné

engtr ro¥oCbc.

— tn uoria6/e speed ojrerafion, delay period u\ay decrease ‹R ferns a/ mifJzsm n»ds

• Delay period increases u'iIh increeae In irt/ecfion eduortce angle. The zeaaon for in-
czeaae ia delay peziad witb iacraaee in ir\jection aévartce anglo ie thet preasaree and
temperatuzeB are Iou'er wben iz\jectioa begins.
 • When iztieotion adv anglen are amall, del•Y period reduces and operation of engine
ia smoother but power is reduced became large amount of 11 bvrxis din-ing expansion.

zine pnz degzee of‘crank aogle ia then eo greet that an audible ânoehing aozznd oec .
R•oaJog Is rougb and if allowed to becomme extreme the irrcreaae izr mec/rozsico/ oad Mermaf

delap pectod can be due ts tbe fltllowlog /écfor8 :

{i) A low daatga maspzeaaioa zatio perafittiag only a mazgizuzl •e1£-igoItIoa t•za-

ñ 9 A low mmbuution due In wem piaten ring• or badly abating valveo.

firth Plum ftieI ignltlon quality ; thAt 1s a Ion eetane num%r f¥iel.
POOU |UAU-Abt0W0B1LE ENGTNRS

noir com6vstiori process under thtct eortdifiott fJ"ig. fl.Z5J.

2. ’£he detoaaLion ia the 9.L aagioe is of a komogeuazue chazge cauatzzg vary high zate of
pure rlae and very Mgh zoaxJzouta . Ta the C.T. eogine, the fuel aad a4t are

3. let the C.f. eogioe the fuel ia izjjeeted iato the cylizuler only at tho oad of'tho campreBaiao
atroke, Merr ie oo gnesñ an a/pre-i niffon aa in SP. ezwine.
4. ttu›no
io,g oyerofon oc fAe human ear easily re tke diafincñ on.
fi. f'’nefins iAot tend to reduer detonation is the 6.f. engine inereeor knocking in IN GJ.

The dJ<e«/ M•c «•n t< cancelled for mJ=c‹/tg delay j›enio‹ 31ze defsy ia reduced by the

liiil Good turbulence.

(ink ñ fuei with a ehert induction parted.

9s9. O.I. BNGINE CObgBUSTION CSABBBB8

In C.l. engines fuel is irtitftod inte the mmbuation rhnriibor at about t6’C before
T.D.C. during the eempreenon atroke. For the bent eiftcisngy the combustion must mmplete
within IS' in fl0• of crenk rotation efler T.D.C. in the erorldng atroke. Thus it 1s cleer thst i9jectien
end combue-

• !n 9.f. eugioo adding tskes place in carbuzaaor, koweYer in C!.I. eagioee this has to be

extremely difficult job pertieulerly in high apeed C.I.

• Prem oambaation phanoneaon ct C.I. engines it la evident thnt fuel-em intact muat be
dp
limited during the deg period in order to limit
dr ' the rate of precauze riae In the
 aeozad atage of eznbualion. 3’lzis zeault can be obtained by skorfening the de/qy
lime. 7b oc/irece h/ph e//?câ ccY ord pot•rr the co rbu•tion clues 6e co t,p7ezed
zcAen for #fa/co 1s neorer fa '?"6.C., fi ra neceaaaz-y fo hoc'e rqpid mliog o//ñ e/
and air du •is

o The deaig of combustion chamber for C.I. engines must ofao I • eonaiderotiori o/@ •f

c Tbs indvctiott ewirl by nir intakn paaa•gea is vary ws•k- If a -as£ed inlet
cadre Is uaed, It quo Idea ao obetzuctiozt la tbe faaae8e wklcb reduced voluzaetric
efE- cien<y. TbezaBro at &e^erazed iâ u<añ m witb tbio oietbod. 9/it1t a woak
awirl, a
ductt+m ewfi4, due /roue fa uae a mu 'ipfe-ori/ioe irLiecfor.
2. High exceed air {low teiuperAturel, lew turbulence 8m• heat lxl, theretere indi-ted
thermal efficiency i• high.

i. 8hmudea vaJven, nmnller v•iev•, low volumetric e&aany.

2. Weak ewirl, low air utilization IN), lower we.p. end lnrge mm looetlrl engine.

4. 9wirt not propertJonal to speed ; e@cieney not maiotaizied at vazñ able speed engine.
5. Iztflueoce oñ zrñ ouzri quantity of’file). Corripffcsttozt st btgh Ic¥zda and idling.
C oa ¥wtctBefa'r to Rg. 2.?7.
• The second method of genezatiog esrlrl ie by

&r. A divided combustion chamber is dafinod

aa one in which combustion space is divided

difFazaaees oemu• bata'ean theas due-fog com-

• Thia awirl ia oiezimuai at about l6• befote

fliel is injected into the avrirl chamber arrd

ig- nition and bulk of cembttatioo taltea
place ttiA considerable amoent nf heat in loat
when products of eombogtion peas back
through the aame throat and thit Icon of heat

reueiv\og Iu›at dottog a›tabustion aad azpaosion and returnñzg the keat to air duz'ing
compraaaion etzokeg i4owevar the loae o£heat Lo auzfaee aFa mbuetioa chamber is greater

e la com6urtion swirl, a uery etrong airirJ u'hieh increased +ciA cyeed i¥ generated.

y. £arge velvee, high woluznelzie efFlcieacjr.

2. Siogle I4}ector, tdntle tyTxi (¥eIF cIennit\g), leaa ataJzsteoance.

4. Greater aiz' utilicatio• due to atzoag ewizt. Saza1Im {cheaper) eogine.

fi. Swirl proportioca) to sseed, azitabTe for variable speed opemtian.
 ALrTOMO8tLS 9NG1NEEB\NG

1. Celd starting trouble due to high lock due u attong as irl, meche»cal eflicie»ey lower.

c This type of eteirl ii iruf red @ we e{ initial pressure riot due to portief cnmbusfina.
o The combustion eh•mbera which uee this type ct awirf ore net meet ifet›eured
ffresr

pecullarltiez, and denirabln, as well as imdesirahle features. Any ooe of theee combustion cham-

result ia all q'pes of e 7bs p•rtNar d••ie n then niuat In thot which ammplishm

Fourapo0Atdsdgno*dñch 6odwideume ink.K engineeerediscuesed beiuw:

fi) Turbulent chamber

o £'ig- 9.78 i1tuetzntee the ueual deeigo of opezt combua4oo

cAami<r, a'hirh 1s repreaeatadve of uoa-turbulent type.
cylinder, Which •ct4 as the combustion chamber. Thie

mising with tha air, far, blgh iz\]ectton gzeeeuree

aod zoufti-ozfiioe zuzzz ee aze required. 'Itzis oa<eaafiaten
BDWERUDV—GUTOMOBKBBNOWE9

— By shrouding the ian valve swirl action ia given to tbs air entering thug cylinder

fit the fiftnt tftozo&•r’ IPig. fl.80) the upward moving piaton Romes all the err (or 70-
8OR› of all ait) wf a stir vaiocity inte a amnll anteehn her, thus imparting a txfaty nnrtien te
mixed with this air, and mmmcc to bitrtt. The pte auro built up in the ante&ember by
the expa•di•g burning force the burning end unhurried fuel end •ir mizturen beck ion the
 cLWOM iB7LE EI•/GJNBGBING

& tAma›bor. Refbr to Rg. 381.

Here the mnsbiiation chamber is separated into two
. The emallar one of the eh mlrer occupy about
40 per cent e/ totef 'xun6wtioa apace. The eommimiea-
tien between two chambers is a narrow w restricted pAe-

aion atroke. Pull is injected izito the pre-mmbuation cham•

e ombtt ation in pre •mmb uatton chamber a nd coa ibuatien â.81. enthaniber.
. . . . . .

(iiii la the mizing offael rind

nr .is.th».m'sn due to si.nluot prpjeetion of .mmbuatina pn›ducte

{i) The velodty é£huming oiizture ia tro Itiafi duziog the P•aa•ge f¥ozn pred atzibera, eo the
bent loee te vect bigb. Syria caoaaa zaduetioa kt tbo therroa) ef5deac , wkirh caa be
oPsst be iacreaaing the a›mpzxaaton ratio.
(dJ Cald añ utiog wiI4 be rlil'fIn›lt. as the añ -Tr•+ a heet

nor cell is slowez at the start, but dus te better nixi .

POh’6R UNfiT—A UTOf'lOB UE ENGINEE I01

progreasea at a more rapid rate. The pma«ures buiit op in the minor cell, therofore. force the
burning gasea out into the maia combustion chamber, thereby creating added totbulence
and producing better mmbustian in this ‹&amber. In the mean time, prea^um ia bent up i• M
m°j•r cell, which then prolongs the action of the jet stream entarinp the main chamber, thus
continuing to induce turbulence in the main chamber.

z Fig. 2.89ehowcsoombustioo zhsmber dsvMop*d for

small high epeed engines. It difnm from I.he other open
co•ibuatlon chamber onglnoe in the respect tlut i

waya aome impingement of spray on the combustion

rhnrnber calls in all sinful tLieael engine designs,
Tbia i spingement was not mnaidered desirable till
M.A.N. cembuation ayatern was experimented.
u The M.A.N. ayategtn's tlieety ie thot eiteu,gt o/ aprons

M-chamber’ ciaima the following e&'oot«ger :

(in) Ability to operate on a wide mnge of liquid fuels (multi•fue1 capnbiliQ).

lij Low volumetric efficiency.

(ii) Bruce hiel vapnriaetion depends upon tha »urfa‹a tamper ttire of the combustion cham-
ber, cold starting requires certain aids.
Our At atarung and id1l•p mnditioni h hon emtveions may ‹<c t.
Table belnw gives companion bczuieen oprn combmfion ethers rind divided comhus-
!04 AUTDI4OBTL6 8NOfN4EBTHO

grectmr beat loco Chzough tb$

ROAD BI'AB'I¥NO Og' CA BNOINBB

a Tbe Iloportaot rajoizea›eat of a C.L aa$ioe io ita easy etaztJog bozzi mlfl. Tb M0l thia
FMJWPR UDFT—AlFFGMOBILE ENGINES

• O,pwi chamber direct iqjecfiori engines ore enaiecf m cold otorf 6eea use o/ tR /of/Ow-

Ui They h•ve smelleat surface to volume tS/Yl taflo, as a mnec9uence heat loco is

fiil They have Insect intensity of aurirl, due te which atvgrant qcs film remains on the
cylinder wills which reduces heet transfer.

&veml metht<lc have need in the Paat Ie ocfiirvt cosy cefd stortiag. Few •f them am

2. fqiecfion off e smelt 9“o ! Thin method

o,' ""’"'g.o"org ifwl oil.
temporarily

966.1. saatzuatlao aod Wozblog

o In I B78, Dugald-clerk, a British engineer introduced a eyule which could be completed
in tvro atro re o/ prima refer than flour off as ii the eaae with the four stroko
cycle engines. The enginee using this cycle vrere tailed two all pie enpiitez. In this
engine auction end eahaunt strokes are eliminated. Here imfeed o/ vatves, pvrt• ore

e Fig. 2.84 ahowa a two•atroke petrol engine (used in emoters, meter cycle etc.1 Refer te
Art. 2.12 aleo.

— Outing the upward of the piaton M, the in L are compreaaed and at

— then the pinton movnn doemwardn, V eloa end the mixture in the crank cban'i•
ber is coo\pressed.
— ftvfer Pig. 2.84 ii), the pisten ii moving upwards and is ‹xirpreceing an
explosive cherge which bas previously been supplied to L. Igziitlon takes place at
the end of the atmke. The piafon theo travels downwards due to expansion of
the gases
106
218

— 7bc discharge velvea DV, and Did In the emir cocipresaion yiiMrs ate inld shut by

nion cylinders nttd the dieael ylinden.

— The eomprvaevd err-charge izi the dieeél cylinder is at lxigb temperature from work

raautth›g au4deo rise of preeeuze in fhe dteeel cylinder fozcea the pistons apazt. As
they move apart, the evhauzt port feeding to lR turbine u•eovere fie•t- The
ozoztzustioo pzzducte at a pzeaeure of 3 to 6 bcr and teoipezatuze of about 6b0‘C
nzsb out iroug7t Ake echos zo the fkr0i te. Aa tbe piston continue to atove I:a their

During thin outward etroYc, tiae air in thu cushion cylinders has been eompreaced.

to thy facet position, in turn mnipreaaing the kesb air chazge trapped In the
dieml blinder by the opposed piaton doaing on eech other.
— Wrma4 e//icirncico @86% a•6 atare caa b« developed be fI›eae pTaato. Thia ceo be
achieved 6ecouae Me J900°Ccomb attox gaa *n la di<ee/ qrt*rtder does zuo/fi dizsczfy

Tbe tezripetatuze to tba tnne of’ 10IXt•C eao ba télerated because 4 •Jzjseom one' uzeJbuAaeouafy
and . IIaz zzg &W the ia bazog eo laé by zalatfiealy odor sir
aoñ expaodJzlg oz-buetioo produk la •ddifioo, the dteael Wlindez welh are coeIed by a water jactceL S6e

1. £nes •k raw as mmpared to a mnre tional gas turbo.

6. The piuten i4 vibratienleee,

8. The thermal effi&atioy is omeider iy lilghet then simple gas turbine unit.
7. Higher voluanobic a iniency can be obtained than mnventional dieeel engime.

zeguJzed £oz eonvaotioaal eaglzie are ahaentF.

9- 3fiza etezting aha Use pi¥too eagiae ia e•aier cozaparad seith cnovaatiaaat dieaeI engine na
air'required f‘oz etaztiog ia kard1y 60 parseot of‘the coavaatiooal dieeel eogizze of the aame

l0. a piaten engine hea ltttle thermal an wall ae merhanital inertia, iR acceleration

' 4. The libel eupply can be varied oJ In a limited range. Any Ouctuation in the fuel mprlr
 219

2. Suitable for poxrer generation in medium power range. how 900 kW dieeel engines
are indispensable in free piaton engine of comparable aixee are not being built on
mmmerciai acale.
3. Free piston engines are specially suitable for pumping oil ; etc the came oil can be
need as fuel.

2W IbiTfiODUCZlON TO AIB POIJ•DTION PBOM LC. ZNtiTNB8

• Atm'poltutloa Dec 6< de,/?n«d oc ari eddifios a our owzos rw of and role -Tal w/ifcJz w/4/
/+oue a deleted e//'ef on / upon oak pfozze£. Besides F.C. enginee other aourcea such
aa electric power atatione, induatriat aod domestic Fuel «oneumera aleo adct pollution.
• There has been a great concern, in recent yeara, that the internal noei6ustfoa engines in
reapooaible for tm much atmospheric pollution, which is detrimetstal to human bealth
and the environment. Thua mneerted efforts are being made to reduce the ms i6fe
;eoflu mud eN2fed {rum ter eckntzst ysfein tuzifiout soc triitg potoer ord fuel nnnsump•

B&.l. Pollution Derived from Combueften Peoducte

Pollutants are produced by the inmmpfett âtirrifrtg ct the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber. The mzi/er pof/uJanfa emitted from tho exhaust due to incomplete com6uaf/on aze :

2. Hydrocarbons IHC)
3. Oxidea of nitrogen (NO ).
Othaz prods prodi«mi are ecezt«ne, et& I etc. If, btneever, combustion iz mmpleto
the only products being expelled fmm the exhaust would be wofer vppot r which is harmless, and
‹xirfmn dixxi&•, which is an mert gas and, no such zt ia not directly bnrrofuj tn home
1. Gerban monnzlde ITOI :
o It in a cek›wk8c qcs of about the seme density aa air.
• I‹ ia a go/socoue gas wbich, wben inhe3ed, replaces the oxygeo ia the blood etream eo
thet the bo4y’e metabolism mn oot Function earnestly.
» small »« n rco « « u s , when breathed in, alow dnsrn physical and mental
activity end produces headaches, while large concentration will kill.
 0 +0 —+ 'd{1 - y} O + 2y + jrO
wbete, t is tbe fracaon at H,O diaao<iate‹L

Aa tbe j››d••ta cod downs to ezban¥t tezaperature, zoajor p6zt of CO zeacta witb mygm to
Ham . Boweuar, a relatively amall amouoL of OO wilt remsin io exhaust, 1ta ma‹antzadon fiz-

t Hydrooa&one, derived fRnn unburrit fuel emitted by ezhnusta, engine er•nkc•se fumea

— Due to existence ct bxal xery rich mlxtun at much leer temperatures than the

end, In eartaiD environments, can cauau pollution ; while prolonged exposure is d«ngrr-

— At high mmbustion tempersturm, the following chemical reactions take plc behind

N + O —+ 2NO
i'tt + 21ItO —* 22'iO +
Chemical equilibrium calculations aboxv that a signitimnt emoimt of NO erill be fnrnxed
at the ed @efimbIrsfifirt. The iitgiority of NO termed will he 'ever deem pcoe at
the low temperatures of erhanat Bet due to low raattton rain at the exhaust temperature a part
of 1'fO foraged in evheiint It is far in ezceee of the equilibrium mmpnsition at that
temperature as the
fermntion of NO at Joe ezhnoat teiuper•tuns.

dehydration pmdune carbon part1cl•a, which ere the innin constituent of the perticulnte.

iftke zoixtuze temgemture ie high, and if these is sufficient n.

 a AI Aeouy /‹xsds, blue /o foci o{azygen, oc increase in afdc/t emission izt the ec/forest is

1, If the mr•fffl mixture k two r rh there â insufficient air for complete cnmbuation and
come of the ftlel wilt not Ie burnt or at least only partly burnt. Since hydrogen has a greater
affinity f'or azygen, hydrogen wilt tnk+ ati the oxjrgm it t+eeda Iea•tog the carbon witb e de6ciancy
o£ozjrgen.

Inmmplete combustion due to partial oxidation of tlse hydrocarbon fuel also prodoeea other
produk such in Que and of&h products, when ezpeUed from the exhaust, leave an
unpleasant smell and are particularly noticeable durinp engine warm-up when a rich mixture ia

2. If the mi:I:ture is muds Zm cream it is unlikely that the atomiaed liquid fuel will be
thor- oughly mised throughout the ceiribuatien chamber ee that slow turning, iammpfefc
cerrif›vsfioa end

A fiutbar characteristic o£we6k oñ =tuzea ie thnt tbe exceaa azyge• fwkick Rae not takaa part
in the combustion p—) at vezy kigh temperature ie ab)e to mmhi»P with ¥ome of the
nlLrogen
(NOT}. Z'/re amormf oJ° nifzz/gec yerazñ fe produced IuifJ increase oB flue mfztzire uuo¥ma rrnfif i7
peaAa oJjuer ouex on oi -/izef rofio a/75.5. 7, 0e3o^‹f US jolt fire/entjxmzfure c›/°rom6uafioc te
ina fo/aff

o Refer Fig. 2.184. It shows her the three main exhaust pollutants products (CO, HC,
NO ) vary frnm different air-fuel ratio operating on either aitle of the atoichiometric
ratio for a ver rich mizttire (11 : 1) to a very lean mixture (18 : 11.

11 TO t3 J4 15 JB J7 18
Alr•luel ralio
Fig. S.184. EfFectu oL mixture strmgtE on ezhauat mmpouition ef a petml engutt.
gu¥zu/y caznfcs z7•e u/zuaznzaf /untes oar iz'd/t ir. Tbs zamoval of blow-by gaeea ao'4 vapolu'
ftuoes
born tbe craa mee is obtained fry rresrfug a j>z -ñâf deprecs/ax oc la w‹rfer f mfioc so fat blow-bp

BYsPozative eoñe¥iooe account For 16 to 26'X- of total bydzXxattxin eañeeion £zozn a gaazline

{i) 9'uag taoâu 'Ake zoalrt féetoza goeemiog the taak emissions aze / ef uofofdiD' aod take

— A)tbougb atoet Internally veoM cazf›uzettore bas'e an ertezoat esot whtch opea at idle
throttle posibon, tke asietiog pre¥eure forcee prevent outttow oF vapours to the atzaoe-
Interns vented carburettor iziay crutch the mixture which in turn iucrsaeee

- Carboretter lv are eignifitazit only during hot condition when the vehicle ie in opera-
tion. The fuel volatiliQ ala› affects the carburettor eeiia4iorie.

The emlaaion amount of HC Idee te plate mmbuationl is clv saluted to :

— docig'ri verts&& (such in induction eyatam rod mmbuation chamber deoigb) ;

Ii) BJP Volume ffi/¥'_i ratio. Fig. 2.t68 nhosa the efféct of £iZV rate an HG emission.
 (iiil Incomplete comCitation. When the mixture 500 225
aopplied ia rich or lean ; the flame propagation becomes

populate flame pnpagation is caused

to j how charge temperature. p

tc1 Poor condition of the ignition ajratem.

(d1 Non-uniform fuel in the mixture supplied to

(e)LwgeeiAsustnaWdeMpmwm)eRmtheqññden
(WS .#m&dmi&ItaolwmmdfmtHCem
low s f thru 40 km/h; but be no efi&t when run-

z.i6s
fu} Cerzgzzeesion roñ io, It flea beeq observed tJzrouglt expezitaaatn that emiza1on o/° LIC in
ec/zouef s d•ereed with os n ‹it compression ra7ib.
2. C*rboosws*ox1d
aI€o):

— Whatever may ba mnditioa of moaiag at any load oz apeed, aod A/I’ ratio, it ie nof
paaeibla la campfefeJy e/imi/tote CO oud 0.5 jéereezzY is considemd a zeaeana6fe goal.
o tjO ei iecions src for during oceeZeraliori ord of o speeds. Thgy ere, how'ever,
h during idting cod reocA sirru»m during deoelcrofino.
3. Oziden oS nitrogen I i'4O 1 :
c Oxideo of nitrogen occur mainly in the term of NO and NOT and are generals fermed at
lxigh temperature.
t The maximum NO levels are observed with ALF raties of about 10 percent above
atoiihionieW for air than tlñ a redinee peak tempetatun end therefore NO,
concen- tration falls, even flee Ot is available.
• Tho following affect the formation of NO, :

liii) Angle o/ nd ccv. The decreasing angle of advance decreneeo appreciably the
formo- non of NO .
— It has alao been observed tiutt NO irtrreoaea with izrrreoaing moated pressure,
engine food end ceiopreesion ratio. This eharacterigtié is different frñ r HC and
CO ence ona which are nearly independent of engine load except for idling and
dcl- eration.

e Fn the fuel, lead is present as lead tetn<thyJ or tetmznethyJ, to c6nuol tbe ae\£ Ignition
tendency of fur!-eir T»ixturea tt›at ie wxgoneib!e Not knock Sta improve the octnoe ratiag
of the fiza)).
s It may nut be Bible to eliminate lead completely from all petrels immediately beccuae
a large number of curating engines rely upon the lubrimtion pmvided by a lead film to
would be

c Both the Note end poffMaot eoiiceoirotion, for erheuat emissions, can change with
the modu operation. Both suet be mnaidered in determining em$eeione.

An autootatic cboke stir tag io II+e cloaed gositaon or a very dirty air Meaner ele-
sent nazi reduce air-feel ratio, ganamlly inetaasing HC and CO ct iaviem
A miaflre allows an entin air-biel charge to b exhausted without coaibuetion.

design iod1f«ntion imps upon the emission qoaliQ. A few perimeters which

.ldodititatkm. of m m. buctlon ehamb'vr lnro. ive.s av.oiding flam.e q. uenchi.ng. zo»ee whs›e
eembua-

Reduced diatanm nf the trip piston ring from the top of tbe pieton.

• Lower eompreesten ratio al•o rr6ucm No e d4einos due to lower maximum temperetun,
 227

The deerenae in mmpreasion ratio is lemming very important design parameter, because
it will result in decrease in pollutants from the new engine. J$enidee, the oetatve iinznZ›rr
requirements will drc e and higA ito&d# s&ines itiilf not be neneasnty, or Stir feed compoed
wiif tirpt out H br repfoeed 6j' at-briefed gnaotfne.

In a multimlinder engine it is alwars difficult to a«pp1y deigned ALF ratio under all eondi-
flour of loed and power. This ‹as be achieved by pnper design of induction astern or wing
high velwity or multi-choke earburet u.

• The ignition timiog control ie ao tdJueted aa to provide uarzoa1 required apazk advance
during ctuiaJng and zetsrd the aame for iéle nuudnp NO emiasioce ore reduced due o
/ouerirzg o/ moziznuzn com6uefion •mpezafuzas. A/ao 77f? emiarion gels reduced dueto
QA exhaust temperofvres. ffotz›euer, cooling requirements inerener. TAe /
economy fan enfers to aome extent ‹accompanied by eotee pomer Ions. thus a
judicious balance needs to be atruck between fuel emno sy, power lv ezid pollutants.

c Increased overlap alloers come freali charge to eecspe directly and incrnsse emieaion

o A new variable velve timlng (VYT) ellows for controlled schedudling vslvs timing
events : imps e•gine yrf•rm•am- lt is alm wintered VVT syrtem will vrork best
wa pw trim: . m» o> n in »ttii‹»si» u psi veil o +m

mixture ir 6urrtf ieitfi tR Rfp Fig ifion yaterrt. The HC! azrd TO which are formed in
the engine eombuadon because of inadequate Ot and inadequate tims to burn are fñrther
burst by providing air in a aeparcte bex, kziown es r•h rear. Tlse aftenburnar is
fmated rem near to the exhaust manifold with an lntendon that thare la no fell In tire
temperature of exhaust. The oxidation ct itC in the altar-burner depends upon the
temperature of ezbauat and mixing provided in the after-burDer. NO emiz&on is not

£’ig. k169. Direct fiaoe afie>trumer.

• Tlxia arrangsmentfsyatem is not aueceaaful in reducing the eaiisaion owing to the
diri- sully In sustaln$ng the eorribustioo durtng Ice HC enilaclone due to high fat
loaaee over

o The exhsuet \na«ifoId reactor ia a further datqJopment o£ aftor-buroer wheze the desiga
ia changed ¥o aa to minimize tho keat lose and to provide sufficient time lor mixing of

u Fig. 2.170 ihowi a General Motora, air injection ayatem.

Pig. 8.t70. General Taelora atr injection sJ/atem.

- Ifeze a positive displanezrieat vaoe puzap, dziven by the engizse, ioducta air bozn the air

- Tha air Roto ao iotaroaJ or ea1aronl diatzibuting znaoiJ'olé, witk tubea f'ead1ag a
faetared ezaount lato tba mkeuat porc •f eaek cyltodar aod cloae to the esbsuat vals'e.
— gmm time ezhauct gaaen ere at high temperature, the injected air reacts with HC, CO
and •ld0hyd•e to re<1uce greatly the concentration of such emiaaioits.
The iqieeted air is thy metered otherwise lt can decrease the temperature ef the ezheust

• In earlier type ct reactor developed by Do Pent the entry of exhaust gasea was radial and

and €¥? @ reñ fi•iz/g cahzf'›'vt arid NO fg/ reducing caJoJyar.

fi) High surface area of the catalyst for better reactions

lii) Go*xi chemical stahillLy to prsvnnt any deterioration ii performance.
liii) Low volume best capacity to taoch the operating temperatures.
 Z29

fun Mioiotum jzzeeaure drop dull\g the fl0a' of mhsuat gaaea through the catalyst bed i
ITB fl 00't g@M OF J6 6fl e.
Fig. 2.171 ehoers a mta c converter, developed by the Ford Company, It conalata ct two
separate elements, one for 1'fO end the other for HCfCO e ions. The eeenndary air in iqjeeted
ahead of the first element The how in the converter is aziaL

Fig. L171. Catalytic converter.

T•rñfofñxr4 eotnfjrffe reoef$ons. CO, HC and O from air ere tstatytie converted to
end JO and number of catalysts are knowzi to be e$ectise noble metala like pleti-

tiil Cen equipped with suth converter mould not usr fended f os hand dtatrxQ's eezrq rfz

liiil It the fuel mntains iutfhur to dcl oil) emit» of 3Ot is i

230

They uae noble metala aa entalyat materials. Platinum or Platinum and Palladium are ap-
plied to a ceramic support whirh has heen ttested with an sitlminium oxide wa8h cost. Thin
reunite in an extmméiy porous structure providing a larg^ aurfam area to stimulate the
mrobination ct Og with HC and CO. This oxidation anvarts moot of them compounds t+ water
vapour and

tla exhaust gaa rank cantata zriodeet amount of Ot (when team and more substantial amount oI^
CO (wben ricbJ. la ozotmet dieael eagiaee alweys operate let The ezbauet tbarefore cataias
subetazt- tJaI eznouot of aaygeo aod ia et Noa' taotpezatuzae(S00°C-600°C) zeaiovsl o£gaaeoua
poflutaota froze the ezbauat aAer t1re laave tbe eagine oiay be eitber thermal or catalytic.
In order to oxidise the l9«lroecrbone in the gas phone without tatelyat (thermal), a rmident
time of the ordar of 60 minus, rind a temperature in aseeaa of 7%’C ere required. To oxidize
CO

obtained by epark tetazd (with !o8e la eflTdencyJ aod \neuIafion of exhaust Pacte end manifold. The
reeidenze tñoe catt be iocreaaal by inczeaaiog laze ezJzauat manihtld volume to fbzzo a thermal zeae-

fytic pm. Benvrval of NO by catalytic oxidation to NOT tequire« tcroperet«re« trna t8en 404°C
tfrom equilibrium xi•ditio•si, ••d eubee9uent removal of NOT produced. Catalytic reaction of NO
with edded NHS 1s not pmetieeble beceune of the transient variation in NO produced in the engine.
Reduction of NO by CO, HC or in the ezhnust to produce Nt is th• proffered mtalytic

Therefore, uee ef catalytic mnxertor for CO, HC rind NOT removal in IC engines has
bemnse

s The ability ef a fuel to burn in mixtures leaner than stoichiometric ratio is a mugh
Indication of ita potential emlasion reducing chareeteristiea and reduced fuel consumption.
• If gaeollne ia changed to propane in engine Aiel CO emiaeion can subatsntially be
re- duced wlth reduced HC arid NO : and in changing trem propane to methane the
CO as well HC emission tourh zere level and only the NO, remeina as a significant
factor.
• £"rorn pollution point 9£Tow, botlt methane ez\d atcam refozzried hexane arc vezy attrac-
tive Fuela but we as unable to use at present for want of technological pzogrees.
 23 l

H7.4. Blow-by Control

u Fig. 2.172 thou a positive crankcase

ventfistion lPfV) oyrt4m.

the manifatd and the blowb'y is

W. PCV valve is epring loaded.
At wide open throttle, the nir free
gets iinreettietad but Oow red ie rig. zzu. pt:v» .
rr •tered by the valve opening.
— In view of Ltte added blowby flow, the carburettor has tn be calibrated. Siince blow-by
ga» and air by- the mrburetter i« entering the manifold, the failure of PCV
will give improper fuel ratios. Dna tn impixrper seating of the PCV vaive at high
vacuem, large quanUty of air and elso fabricating o›I r•1at •i11 entar the manlbld,
Thie will lead Ie loan tnimres. Also, the valve getting atuch to due to contaminants,
erill lead to rich mixtures.
— In ease of valve failure, in thia system, blow-by is unnble to go to atmosphere.

In one of general mntors ayctem the fdter pipe is aealed eith a preaaure exp. lt compriaee
a built in vecuum reliet to allow air tn enter es the fuel geta eortsurnetL An inverted bnwl is
placed ioeide the tank lt traps air an tank is fdled to allnw for liqoid fuel volume ezpanaion. Tise
air geta released fmm the bowl by two atuall orificee in the trip. The tnnk ia vertti)•ted to a
bannister which has activated carbon particle This can hold OF kg of fuel vapour upnn ahut
down. But when the engine is tanning, filtered air is drawn thmugh the bottom of eannnter,
rez0oxing the absorbed vapour. Tlxia mixture is cent to alr cleaner or to the intake manlfnld, in
peoportinn to air flnw rate.

The concentration of oxidee of niuogen in the exhamt ia closely related te the peak
cycle temperature. The following ere the three methods (investigated ao far) for reducing peak
yele tem- perature and thereby reducing NO erniseiors
1. Exhsuat Go flyer-eulation (EGR).
2. Cataly«C

• Thfs method is money to reduce no, in petrol ss well as dieevl engines. In

S.I engines, about 10 percent simulation redum NO emieaion by 60 permnk
Unfortu- nately, the ton»eqoeiit1y pmret ‹ximbuetloo directly Wreaaee HC eminnion
and calls for mixture enrichment to restore combustion regularity which gives a further
indirect in- crease of both HC and CO.
V2

• I‘ig. 2.173 sha 'a the anaogernent of Bxhauat Gaa Bectmtlation (EGR) ayatmn. A
por- tion (about 10' to l5&1 of the exhaust ii recirculsted t• cylinder intake
charge, a•d tkis zeducea tbe quaotity of Of available for cootbuetioa. The es sauet
gss for recirculation ia taken fas shown in Fig. 8.17S) through an orifice and paased

through

E
d

t’
2

80
8 IO 12 14 18 18 20 ZE

Fig. 2.174. Bff’& of zueyi mg of gas on

’
 J. Water lzijeetlnn. lt hes been observed that the specific fuel mnaumption decreaaea a
few percent at medium water injection rste. Attempts hav‹r been made to tree water as a dsvicn
for controlling thu NO . This melhnd, because of ita ‹ximplexity, ix rarely used.
2.e7.7. Total Emiaaion Control Pscmgn
Earlier Iprevious articles) we have eeen that cry method which ia insert to decrease NO
tried u incteeu HC end CO and via-versa. Thua it is of paramount importente to develop a
method/syatem which shottld reduce emissions of NO,. HP, CO to a desired level simultnnoously.
After a long and detailed experimental atudy of various possible systems, the following two
systein&packogea have been developed tn achieve the required results :
1. Thermal reactor package.
2. Catalytic converter package.
Uairig thin epptoo , the follavring am thu IN boaic mefho& o/emission control :
fi) Thermal reactors, which rely on homogeneous oxidation to control CO and HC
i (ir) Omdation catalyst for CO aaa HC ;
(rii) Dun1 catalyst system there a reduction catalyst for NO and an oxidation catalyst for CO
arid liC are connected in eeriesL
— Where control of hO is required with the first two methods. EGC is ndded to the

A z8crmo/ n'n Our ie u chamber which i» away to provide adequate residence time
For allowing appreciable oxidation of PO rind Hfi to Luke place. Foy enhancing the
conver- sion of CO to COC the ezhouet temperature* iticreaoed by retarding the
aperk.

Fig. 2.17fi. Thermal reactor packogr I Fordl.

Actuai thermal reactor tmade of high nickel steely that iz uond on a cor consists of two
onlorged oxhnuot manitoldo which allow greetor residence time fer burning HC and
CO with oaygon in the pumped in air. For keeping a daine constantly burning t•nd
there by naaurning complete combustion) n ecmiidnty art pump injW tieah air into the
reactor ; this reduces HC and CO. Abeut 10 to 75 percent of the gon ia reeirculated
aftnr reeling in
the init x›oJer to re6uce the for aatiun oF hO .
— In this pecking ejratext oro also iarJuded tho 7olloe' g :
(i) Enriched end stage corhucettor tcmgerotuze controls ;
tii) Crankcase velve to control b!ou/-by ganes ;
liii) i5pocial evaporation centred volvea.
 — I• thin peckegs emission of NO„ HC and CO are reduced to a beguiled lm'al but at
the ooct of 20 per cent loaa power and 10 per ant more feel consumption.
Th a conveetz+r ean be eaiplr0'ed Ibr a ruo of” 1.5 lace km.

— Tonverturs for HC and CO and i'tO are arranged as shown in the figure. The NO

The next is Hc/co catalret, whim us but in such a pt ‹stent ter may
cauee overheating and burning ct the element. This is taken care of by ipjeeting air

0.8 law km).

— For better control ef NOp ezhauat gem ie ciretilated via on intnremler back to rim

• For this nZstem, the power loss is nbout 2m and the fuel consumption is abeut IN

s Editions from dieeel engine can be lfied in the same categories as thoae for the

level ef tlse coriatituentn of the exhaust products of comboetion in four-ntroke cyc)o

and two-atnke cycle are given in the Table Inaxt rei at idling, accelerating,
partial load and full load.
 235

• As ahowo in Pig. 2.177, it ia wortb ootiog tbat NO caaceoicatioo io uoeupez<fiarged

4-atmIce<ycIe dieeel ezigiaea sazy Boearty witk poa'er (output). ’f'be deai$o aod operat-
ing pt to cootzal NOT aze tbe aazrie as liar S.I. eagJ0aa already dia«uoced.

0 b0 100 1d0
F/A ratio greater than 1.5 (Pg > 1.5) at pores developed in theee engines produces eoet. The
quantity of cont formed depends on tlu following /ocrs :
f*T be loml F/A retioa ;
{fi) The type of Fuel ;

lf this emt is able te find odeqoote oir tO#) which on the whole is much in oxeeso ct the
tetj itements of perfect combustion, it will turn eompftfeiy. lf it is unsble te find air (Ot) in the
oombtta0oft eyt4e, it will in w6 And if the money Le suffix, if «'itf 6r i si6fe end flit
u*

— Formation of smoke is basically a process of conversion of molecules of hydrocarbon fuela

into pertieJea of emt. It should be neted that eoet is not nor6on but aimply an
eggomeration of xery large polybenzenoid free radicals. It is also ot›eerved that smt
formation during the early p•rt of the actual combuataon preeeoa is conmen te all
dieeel engines but it is mm ned during later part of eembuatlom
— •yrolysia of fi›sl molecule tbemaelves ia thought to be responaifiie fot cont formation.
Fuel hmted with insufllciant Ot will give carbonateoue deposits. it is believed tact
the ”heavy ends” ordix fiiel may, pyroW to yield the type of amoke that is observed
from

- Many theoñm heve been put forward for the fermatien of smoke but the basic reactions
leading to the fermatien of emeke are net fully known.
e 'f'be azooke ofa dieed engine ie, in gener¥l, of two basic typea :
(i) Blue-+ohfre aa ›fia. ff ia couced Ip l”paid droplets o//u6 fiztg aiJ cr/ñef e”4 while

Owing to low Inner surrounding temperatures the cooibmtion prodti‹-ta in at a

ma- turity lv tempemture end intermediate pnxiocts of x›mbuation dn riot
6«re. This results in hfuisA sfdte smoke when ezhauated. This type of amoke ia
alao formed

• It eonsiata of carton particles auapended in the exhaust gas end depends largely upen
A/F

e Zt iaczeaaee rapidly with the inczeaae in Uma ma « ilahle air ie depleted.

These znigbt result due to the deaign taetnrn di4eusaed helow :

The folio 'ing injection eher•cteristics subotnntialJy irv•reoee tAe emete fe rfs.
s Unsuitable droplet size.
 237

o Excessive dutetion ot injection.

uThe white Locke produced in en engine depends upon the quality of fuel.
eGenamlly, Moore volatile £ueTa give leae eotoke than heavierfhaleat”aiotiIarcetane ntunbez.
eThe cetaoe number ezezciaea no efléct an pro0ustiort of black amoke.

with as sucfi as 26'ifi ezeess air in the cylinder, clearly indimtes that, even in tiae pres-
denceexceai oxygen, dieeel engine lue a mixing problem.

o The smoke levels at higher loeda are higher in naturally aspirated enginee than turbecha
eAs low as well an hTgb apeeé the aotoke ia wozee.

u The emoke levels greatly depend upon the rendition ct tho engino. Gmd maintenance
1s a meat for lower smoke levels bthe maintennnte aifeete the lq)vetion tharactertsdm
and the quantiQ of lubfieating oil which paseea acroes the pialnn rizigz and thus
exsrcieoa a significant eFect oo engine tondefx ' to generate emokeJ.

Two basic typea of smoke meters for measuring amoLe density are :
(i) iller dachening type (Ezamplee : Boech smoke meter ; Yera Braod smoke matar).
338

o Ta this meter, a measured olume ol’e6eust gas ie drawn though a Ntar paper-wlzlcb @
bleckeoad to vazioua degrees depending upon the cazbon present in the exhaust gas. Tbs

• The specifications of eample volume, filter paper size etc. are well defined.

» In ttils mater exhaust sampk is pnaeed thmugii tub+c of aboat OF m length which
hae ligfit ecu at e•e e•d end pbetoe&1 or a›l•r cell at the other end. The amount
of light passed through tbla evoke column is ueed us indlcatlon of level of smoke.

3bezo ie bazdly aoy cuaoeaafb1 zaetbod to cootzo1 tbe foot azoept the engñ ze has zo rue of

o It has been observed that aomn barium mznpounds when added in fuel reduce the
tenx- parature of eomboation and avoid the cont formation. It ia further ob••rvea that if
the Print Ie' formed, the barium eoznpourrds break them in yep fine pertielea aird reduce
the

• Tbe m o/'6az tun aa/ts, fxzearer, erdron<ee fire de,poei/ /bzzizofion tecdeocfes o/'engñ ze

e It Is a method o£in¥rz<fuciug an•otl anmv Y a// ‹d +c‹i t zf • MaAe monk This

Mff‹zfss y/e-<sinbuatiaa reooéona before aod durJag tbe cotopreeaioa etnflce zeetdting tn
raluced cbeaJcal delay fl>e<auao tha lotanaediate products aucb as permidea anda
aldebydes r-<c

• £‘uzaigntioo zate of ahout 11 to 16a gives the beat aozoke izaproveaaat.

o The use of catalytic mufllera, imlike petrol engiase, are not very entire.

GI baa bean obeersmi tbrougb aotoe oxpe¥ia\eats thst fAey+x›ducM o/yort sf as/do¥ion are he
mobs @ odbzp' In zfieee7 exAausC Thia pazLial oz-idatioo zaay be b+Xuzuaa of aither vazy Jeao
mizauee eurh ns dadng id1iog or 4ue to guencffiog effect

s Several i anufâ cturen eheim that odour additive compounds can reduce the intensity of
odour, but It W been found in prortim that these additim hardly have eny effiitt on
 239

c The control of odours by ualng csta(yst 1s under development. It has been found
experi- mentally that a few oxidation tataiyat4 reduce intensity of odour.

z.70. COMPARt£tON OP £1A8OLfHB AND DIBB8t• BMt88IOH8

f'ig. 2.179 ehows the cn•iparimn of emleeiona and odour from gasoline and dieeel engines.

u It is evident freer the figum that Are ii a matked different It men the products ef
mznbusuon of gaeoiine end dieeel engines.
• Whereas gasoline petrol engirreo have a somewhat similar emieeiort pattern, ell dieael
engines have different emission eharaeteristi‹a.
The wmbuation in a diesel engine ‹miv over a wide range of fiieI-air ratio ranging from
very lean mixture to very rich mixture while the gasoline eorribuation is of' relatively hnmogerieouz

In order to account for curious differences in the deaigu and eperatien prfneiplm of gasoline
end dieeel engine the following correction /orfor is applied for comparing these the typaa nf

t Ff the dieael engines are maintained properly, they have very little TO in their erhsuat
and a amall quantity of emr›iro. On the other hand gasoline engine exhaust aignifimt
amount of CO and U•bumt hydrocarbon IUBHCI. Tina d i engine is cfcootr as ce›n-

9•71• ZBRO ZbOBBION

e Per zero emission” tile Electronic-Catalytic Converter (ECCN aecumea eigcTflcanoe. In
the recent development India-band Hydrodrive Hyetema and Controls haa launched eon-
mun Electronic-Catalytic Converter for automobile futls th ; the diesel, leaded and
unleaded giiso1ine.
ICC ercitea the Jf moiectdeo wife micrown ve electroaiez end does molecular e ginern-
trip of feel for mm lr combustles.
t ECC can be installed as a pmengine device.
• ECC i« the fireI calal yIu: cen uerter In user {uef can Ange due to impruiwd c‹tm b itsIion.
e An compared to B.I. englnm, a gas turbine exhnuet about l to tm tiC, 1
to lv CO and 30 to NO . Besides this ezheust eo•
ozides of sulphur, aerosol , amohe

• Bedootlon of C.0 teztlon can be aemznpliahed by using foUoering methods :

fiil By mdirtributing the ale flow te brlng th prlmery one equivalent ratio Ie an optimum

(iiil By irvneaaing the residenm time.

fit'l By reduñ ng the film o›ollng nir.

tln remainder: it mdum Rios at low power conditions by impmvitig the quality of
POOR UNIT-A OBIL[ X0lñE6

Thua, for reducing NO concentration, it will be required to lower the reaction temperature T.
’l'he reduction in both flame temperature and residence time are readily gliahed by increasing
the air Oow in the primary tone, but inereeaes the production of Ht2 and CO. Thus arty attempt
mede to reduoe HC and OO intreaaes NO, and vice-verae-
— The NO level ee well ae the smoke levelz can be reduced @ pmvidiy icon ‹x»tt6usfion

Tbee old reSengineemñwbn&onfiummnAsmfUiomdñrummeddrâow:

u It ie an irritant gas and affects tne mumue membrane when inhaled. lii the presence
of water vapuiir it forma su1phuroue and sulphuric aeide. These acids cause
severe bronchoepaama at very low levels of concentration.
• Diseases lihe bronchitis and esthama are aggravated by a high oincentretion of SO;.

• It has a strong affinity f200 times i for combining with the haemoglobin of the blood to
form carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduced the ability of the haemoglobin te carry oxygen te
the blood tissues.
< C'O a//i'cfs the cnnlrol nemaue syafem.
• It ie also reaponeible foz keart attacks aod a M@ too ty zeta.

u These are known to caue occupational dmaaes. It is eatimstnd that Oye and naasl irri-
tation will be obecrvud aftar enpocure to abnut l6 p.p.nx. of nitrogen oxlde, and pulmo-
nary diammfert after hrief exposure to 2S p.p.m. of nitrogen oxide.

• They are mgjor mnlribtitore to eg and respiratory irritation caused by photochemical

Exhaust discharge horn IC eagines early compounds of incomplete coothusfion (polycyclic

organic oompouode and aTipkatic Itydzr<arbooa}, wlzicb act as cazciaogeoic egaata
aod are responsible fot lttngs ceneer.
g. L•ad :
• Inorganic load compounds fdiacbarged from vehicles using leaded petrol) cnuae a variety
of human health diaordera.

fertility end pregnamy etc.

It is visible carhon particles.

o It rausea irritation in eyes and lungs, and visibility reduction. It aieo causeo otbnr
respi- ratory diseases.
Generally speaking, suereptibility to the effects of exhaust emissions io ,greatest amungst
infants and the elderly. Thoan with chronic dieeesce of lungs or hnnrt are thought to bn nt grnat risk.
RMNAR UNF-AUTOMOBUAEMG£M0 zas

fiiz ringn are provided'on each piston in diesel The four top ringa are
conven- tional compression ringa while the ring immedliitely shove the wriat pin nod the one in
the piston

. Ctankcaae ventilatti›n ia provided to reduce dilution due In the preee•ce of watar parti-
cles, sludge and blow by -

The flywheel atorea ezeeaaeaezgy in gower etzake. and Mpe knch in a›mpreaaion etzoke,

firs Higher elf mnaumption per B.P.

the intake atroXe mmpared te the velume of the cylinder is known en the t›otumeiric emirs.
Q.2&Whnt R •a • T
The theriznl effinien<y of an ide•l sir standard cyeie is died the oir stondorzl client

c• It is the property of tbs feel which elated the cane with which a li9uid vapnixea.

gaeelirie.

A-o. A vapour in the eni&tion in t6e fuel eyre •m when fuel vapoiizea, csuaing the
en of bubblm in thu g•4oline vapour dicturbinJ fuel delivery to the carburettor.