indian and southern ocean circulations

Ayapilla Murty

DECEMBER 3, 2019
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1.4. Indian Ocean Circulation:

Indian Ocean circulation is different compared to that of the other two major oceans of Atlantic
and Pacific due to the presence of monsoons. Indian Ocean experiences two monsoons. One is a North-
East monsoon that occurs during northern winter (November to February) and south west monsoon
occurs during northern summer (June to September).
The Indian Ocean is the only one that does not touch both the North and the South Polar regions.
This is a consequence of the presence of the Asian continent to the north. It restricts the ocean to the south
of about 250 N. The restriction has important implications to the climate of the region and to the working
of the ocean. The most important implication to the climate is the large seasonal changes that occur in the
patterns of wind and of precipitation over ocean and the surrounding lands (Figure 1.4).
Thus Surface circulation in the Indian Ocean is unique because of its response to the
annuallyreversing monsoon winds because of which the major currents in the Indian Ocean also undergo
variations on semiannual and annual time scales. The seasonality is more prominent in the north than in
the south. The major surface currents in the Indian Ocean are summarized in the schematic in Figures 1.4
to 1.7. During the northern winter (i.e., during the northeast monsoon), the surface current systems
resemble the general circulation patterns in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans; the South Equatorial Current
(SEC), the EquatorialCounter Current (ECC), the North EquatorialCurrent (or NortheastMonsoon
Current, NMC according to Fig.1.5a), and the associated boundary currents are seen during this season.
During thenorthern summer (i.e., during the southwest monsoon), the surface currents do not resemble the
patterns seen in the other two oceans; the eastward flowing Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC) replaces
the westward NMC and a northward flow, the Somali Current (SC), replaces the southwardflow along the
coast of Somalia. At the equator, the scenario is further complicated with the appearance of an eastward
Equatorial Jet (EJ) during the transition periods,April–May and November–December (Wyrtki, 1973).

1.4.1. Indian Ocean circulation during NE monsoon:

As wind pattern controls the ocean circulation, during North east monsoon winds blowing from
North east drives the currents in the same direction in the Arabian Sea as shown in Fig.1.4a (left) and an
anti-clockwise gyre in Bay of Bengal. While south Indian Ocean circulation remains unaltered in any
monsoon(season) and anti clockwise gyre is present throughout the year(See Figs1.4a to 1.7a). All the
four currents of equatorial current system (NEC, ECC,SEC and EUC) are present during the entire season
of NE monsoon.
Fig.1.4. a: Indian Ocean circulation during NE monsoon/winter season (season (Right side figure shows the wind pattern during
winter)
http://cdn.yourarticlelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/clip_image00851.jpg

1.4.2. Indian Ocean circulation during SW monsoon (Summer):

During the southwest monsoon both the gyres of clockwisein Northern Hemisphereand
anticlockwisein Southern Hemisphere are present in both the oceansas shown in Fig.1.4b. In other words,
the circulation in North Indian Ocean is completely reversed when compared to that of the NE monsoon.
North Equatorial Current (NEC) completely vanishes and Equatorial Counter Current (ECC) and
Equatorial Under Current (EUC) joins with the South west Monsoon Current (SWMC) and flows from
west to east (Fig.1.4b). The Somali Current reverses and flows withintensificationfrom south to north
along East coast of Africa along Somalia coast develops in this season (Fig.1.4b). The south Indian Ocean
circulation remains same and does not change.
Fig.1.4.b: Indian Ocean circulation duringSouthwest monsoon/summer season (Right side figure shows the wind pattern during
summer)(with the courtesy of
http://cdn.yourarticlelibrary.com/wp content/uploads/2014/03/clip_image00851.jpg

Fig.1.5: Indian Ocean circulation during (a) the northeast monsoon and (b) the southwest monsoon according to Shenoi et al.
(1999)(By courtesy ofhttps://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-of-major-surface-currents-in-
the-Indian-Ocean-during-a-the-northeast-monsoon_fig1_27668602)

Trajectories of 412 satellite-tracked drifting buoys deployed in the tropical Indian Ocean
havebeen analyzed byShenoi etal (1999) to document the surface circulation and kinetic energyfield as
shown in Fig.1.5 a &b.The major currents depicted in the Fig.1.5 are: South Equatorial Current (SEC),
Northeast Monsoon Current (NMC), Equatorial Counter Current (ECC), Equatorial Jet (EJ), East African
Coastal Current (EACC), Somali Current (SC), Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC), West India Coastal
Current (WICC), East India Coastal Current (EICC) and East Madagascar Current (EMC). The EJ,
though depicted in the schematic for winter, does not appear either during summer or winter monsoon
season; it appears during the transition period in April-May and November-December. The thickness of
the curve represents the relative magnitude of the current.
Unlike in earlier studies, the widening of the Equatorial Jet in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean
and the westward flow at the equator during July–August are apparent in the present data set. The
comparison of drifter data with the seasonal mean dynamic topography (0/1000 db) shows that the surface
circulation pattern inferred from dynamic topography does not always represent the surface currents in
the Indian Ocean. Both compare well for the South Equatorial Current, the Equatorial Counter Current,
and the southwestwardcurrent along the IndonesianIslands; they differ in the Bay of Bengalduring the
southwest monsoon, but are similar during the northeast monsoon.

Using the 1985–2013 record of near-surface currents from satellite-tracked drifters, the pseudo-
Eulerianstatistics of the near-surface circulation in the Indian Ocean (IO) were analyzed by Peng et al
(2015) and presented in Fig.1.6. It is found that the distributions of the current velocities and mean kinetic
energy (MKE) in the Indian Ocean (IO) are extremely inhomogeneous in space and non-stationary in
time. The most energetic regions with climatologic mean velocity over 50 cms -1and MKE over 500 cm2 s2
are found off the eastern coast of Somalia (with maxima of over 100cms -1 and 1500cm2 s2) and the
equatorial IO, associated with the strong, annually reversing Somalia Current and the twice-a-year
eastward equatorial jets. High eddy kinetic energy (EKE) is found in regions of the equatorial IO, western
boundary currents, and Agulhas Return Current, with a maximum of over 3000cm 2 s2off the eastern coast
of Somalia. The lowest EKE (<500cm2s2) occurs in the south subtropical gyre between 30 0and 400S and
the central-eastern Arabian Sea. Annual and semiannual variability is a significant fraction of the total
EKE off the eastern coast of Somalia and in the central-eastern equatorial IO.
According to Peng et al (2015), the major currents (Fig.1.6) are the South Equatorial Current
(SEC), South Equatorial Countercurrent (SECC), South Indian Ocean Countercurrent (SICC), Northeast
and Southeast Madagascar Current (NEMC and SEMC), East African Coastal Current (EACC), Somalia
Current (SC), Equatorial Jets (EJs, also call Wyrtki jets), Southwest and Northeast Monsoon Currents
(SMC and NMC), Northeast and Southeast Madagascar Currents (NEMC and SEMC), South Java
Current (SJC), Leeuwin Current (LC), Agulhas Return Current (ARC), Great Whirl (GW), and South
Gyre (SG). Currents occurring in summer (winter) are colored red (black), while those occurring in all
seasons are colored green. Arrow with black dashed-dotted thick line denotes the EJs occurring during
spring and fall. Vectors in magenta denote the subsurface currents. Dashed arrow in the Mozambique
Channel shows the effects of eddy propagation. The line thickness here represents the strength of currents
roughly.

Fig.1.6 IndianOcean major current systems according to Peng et al (2015).

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-illustration-of-the-major-current-systems-in-the-
IO-including-the-South_fig5_272093575)
 Figures 1.7a and b taken from Schott and McCreary (2001) summarize the large-scale circulation
during January-February and July-August, respectively. South of about 10 0 S the direction of the currents
depicted in the figures remains approximately unchanged from season to season.
Added to the Sverdrup flow are: the Indo-Pacific Through-flow that enhances the transport of the
South Equatorial Current; the Agulhas Current, the Mozambique Current and the East African Coastal
Current that form the western boundary current system along the East African coast; and, the Leeuwin
Current System along the western Australian coast that has a strong surface flow and an undercurrent of
similar magnitude.
In contrast to the circulation in the south, the region north of about 10 0 S exhibits a circulation
that is strongly seasonal, as indicated by the differences in Figures 1.7a and b in this region. This is a
consequence of the monsoons, the Southwest Monsoon (June-September) winds and precipitation being
much stronger than those in the Northeast Monsoon (November-February). During the transition between
the two Monsoons, May and October, the equatorial Indian Ocean exhibits a unique feature: eastward
Wyrtki Jets whose transports have been estimated to be between 12-20 Sv (10 6 m3 s-1). The highly
seasonal circulation north of 100 S, including the Wyrtki Jets, can be understood as superposition of
tropical and coastal locally- and remotely-forced low-frequency (annual, semi-annual, etc.) waves. The
waves can lead to strong boundary currents, the most prominent example being the Somali Current during
the Southwest Monsoon.
Two Red Sea and the Persian Gulf join the northern part of the Indian Ocean and have
remarkable influence on its salinity, and hence, consequently on density structure. The Red Sea Water
and the Persian Gulf Water that is injected into the Arabian Sea at sub-surface levels leaves this semi-
enclosed basin more saline than any other part of the Indian Ocean. In contrast, the high precipitation over
northeastern part of the ocean makes the surface waters of the Bay of Bengal and the Anadaman Sea the
least saline.
The northern part of the Indian Ocean basin receives net heat influx across the air-sea interface.
An important question for the global climate in general and climate of the region in particular is, how
does the ocean circulation remove this heat? Following a synthesis of available data and ideas, Godfrey et
al. (1995), proposed that the removal of heat takes place with the help of two overturning cells, one
shallow (few hundred meters deep) and the other deep (>2000 m). In the shallow cell northward transport
across the equator occurs in the western boundary and the southward transport occurs in the Ekman layer
of the open ocean. In the deeper overturning cell northward flow is in the deep western boundary currents.
Nature of the southward flow in this cell is not known. In view of the profound implications of these cells
to the climate of the region, detailed investigation is necessary.
Fig.1.7a. Indian Oceancurrents (green) observed(a):during January-February according to Schott and McCreary
(2001)https://booksite.elsevier.com/DPO/chapterS11.html&
(https://incois.gov.in/Images/iogoos/abstracts/abstract1.htm)

(Fig.1.7a) is a schematic representation of currents observed during January-February according

to Schott and McCreary (2001). The currents identified are: South Equatorial Current (SEC); South
Equatorial Counter Current (SECC); Northeast and Southeast Madagascar Current (NEMC and SEMC);
East Africa Coastal Current (EACC); Somali Current (SC), West India Coastal Current; Lakshadweep
High (LH); East India Coastal Current (EICC); Northeast Monsoon Current (NMC); South Java Current
(JC); and, Leeuwin Current (LC). Also shown are transports in Sv (10 6 m3 s-1) across sections shown as
red lines. The Indo-Pacific Throughflow, which enters from the east, influences both the SEC and the LC.
The currents identified in Fig 1.7b are: South Equatorial Current (SEC); South Equatorial
Counter Current (SECC); Northeast and Southeast Madagascar Current (NEMC and SEMC); East Africa
Coastal Current (EACC); Somali Current (SC), Southern Gyre (SG), Great Whirl (GW), and associated
upwelling wedges (in blue); Socotra Eddy (SE); Ras al Hadd Jet (RHJ) and upwelling wedge off Oman;
West India Coastal Current; Lakshadweep Low (LL); East India Coastal Current (EICC); Southwest
Monsoon Current (SMC); Sri Lanka Dome (SD); Aghulas Current (ALC) and, Leeuwin Current (LC).
Also shown are transports in Sv (106 m3 s-1) across sections shown in red numbers. The Indo-Pacific
Throughflow, which enters from the east, influences both the SEC and the LC. The figure is taken from
Schott and McCreary (2001).
It is now well established that SST anomalies can provide advance warning of impending
episodes of anomalies in climate elements. Godfrey et al. (1995) have pointed out that SST anomalies in
the Indian ocean that get generated by the combined effect of circulation, air-sea fluxes, and mixed-
layerdynamics, have been associated with a number of climate elements relevant to the region. These are:
El Nino and Southern Oscillation, tropospheric Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, intraseasonal oscillations in
the north Indian Ocean, east African rainfall anomalies, south Australian rain (often described as
"Nicholls Dipole"), and the long-term trend of SST. To these six, we should add the recently discovered
(Saji et al., 1999) Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). It has been suggested that the IOD forms a coupled ocean-
atmosphere system, and hence monitoring the SST anomalies associated with it offers the promise of
prediction of related seasonal climatic anomaly.

Fig.1.7b. Indian Oceancurrents (green) observedduring July-Augustaccording to Schott and McCreary (2001)
(https://incois.gov.in/Images/iogoos/abstracts/abstract1.htm)&https://booksite.elsevier.com/
DPO/chapterS11.htmlThe figure1.7b taken from Schott and McCreary (2001 is a schematic representation of currents
(green) observed during July-August. The currents identified are: South Equatorial Current (SEC); South Equatorial Counter
Current (SECC); Northeast and Southeast Madagascar Current (NEMC and SEMC); East Africa Coastal Current (EACC);
Somali Current (SC), Southern Gyre (SG), Great Whirl (GW), and associated upwelling wedges (in blue); Socotra Eddy (SE);
Ras al Hadd Jet (RHJ) and upwelling wedge off Oman; West India Coastal Current; Lakshadweep Low (LL); East India Coastal
Current (EICC); Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC); Sri Lanka Dome (SD); and, Leeuwin Current (LC). Also shown are
transports in Sv (106 m3 s-1) across sections shown as red lines. The Indo-Pacific Throughflow, which enters from the east,
influences both the SEC and the LC.

An issue that an observing system of this region must address is monitoring for evolution of
storms. These are most prominent in two areas: a zonal band centered approximately around 10 S; and,
the Bay of Bengal and eastern Arabian Sea. Both areas show distinct seasonal preference for
cyclogenesis. In the south the preferred period is December-March with a maximum in January. In the
north the primary maximum is in November with a secondary maximum in May. The Bay of Bengal also
breeds depressions that migrate west-northwestward bringing rainfall to the Indian subcontinent. These
generally occur during active spells of the Southwest Monsoon when the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone hangs over the region. An observing system must not only keep track of storms, but also monitor
changes in sea-level due to storm surges in coastal areas. Storm surges in the Bay of Bengal have been
amongst the deadliest anywhere, and have a history of major losses of life and property. An added interest
now in sea level monitoring comes from two considerations: climate change is expected to lead to a long-
term sea-level rise; and, frequency of storms – and hence storm surges – is expected to increase due to
global warming. Both have serious implications to low-lying coastal areas, including coral islands.
 An outstanding issue from the large-scale biogeochemistry of the Indian Ocean is ventilation of
the basin. Being restricted to tropics in the north, the sub-tropical convergence zone typically found in
other basins does not exist here. The net result is that the basin to the north of the equator must be largely
ventilated by waters that subduct in the south Indian Ocean and then make their way to the north. This,
together with high productivity of the Arabian Sea, leads to the formation of an intense oxygen minimum
layer, a special feature of the hydrography of the ocean.
The large-scale processes described above have impacts on the shallow shelf and estuarine zone
of the ocean. In addition, the coastal zone comes under the influence of factors - tides, effect of local
winds, influence of river runoff, etc. - that differ from location to location.
The southern and central parts of the west coast of India support a large fishery industry. Hence
there is considerable interest in understanding its ecology and biogeochemistry. The sub-surface waters
here are oxygen deficient, a result of the ventilation characteristics of the North Indian basin as well as
other local factors such as the high productivity of the Arabian Sea in general and the coastal region in
particular. The region experiences upwelling during the Southwest Monsoon, and the oxygen deficient
waters are brought close to the surface. Sometimes the entire shelf is covered by waters with O 2<0.5 ml l-
1
. Naqvi et al. (2002) have pointed out that this low oxygen waters may be due to anthropogenic effects,
such as fertilizer inputs from land. The fertilizer inputs could enhance the naturally high primary
productivity rate bringing about a shift in the structure of the ecosystem. The methods for monitoring for
a comprehensive understanding are well established with XBT surveys, current meter moorings, satellite-
based remote sensing, and drifters/floats from Indian side.

1.5. Southern Ocean circulation:

The Southern Ocean is the common denomination given to the southern extreme of the Indian,
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, extending southwards to the Antarctic Continent.
The whole circulation in Southern Ocean is around Antarctic continent as shown in Fig.1.8.
While East wind drift (east to west) circumscribes very close to Antarctica beyond 70 0 S, west wind drift
(west to east) circumscribes in the opposite direction between 70 to 60 0 S. Later Circumpolar current
circumscribing the continent from west to east from 60 to 40 0 S. These are the main current systems in the
southern ocean. This circulation is very important as it feeds the currents and water masses to all the three
major oceans of Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans.
The dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean is the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current (ACC), the world’s largest current which flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica
and is driven by strong westerly winds, which are predominant at around 50°S. It is the only current that
goes all the way around our planet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans (Fig.1.8). It was
discovered by Edmund Halley, the British astronomer, during the expedition of the HMS Paramore in
1699-1700. Later, James Cook in 1772-1775, and James Clark Ross in 1839-1843.
Along with the ACC, the westward-flowing Antarctic Coastal Current, or East Wind Drift
(EWD), is wind-driven. These two current systems are connected by a series of gyres and retroflections as
shown in Figure 1.9.Figure 1.9 shows a schematic over view of the major Southern Ocean currents
from Rintoul et al. (2001). The poleward flanks of the cyclonic subtropical gyres are shown to
the north. The anti-cyclonic polar gyres are adjacent to Antarctica. Between the subtropical and
polar gyres is the massive Antarctic Circumpolar Current system (ACC). The ACC experiences
significant meridional excursions (e.g. the Malvinas (or Falkland) Current east of South
America) as it circumnavigates the pole.
 Fig..1.8. Southern Ocean circulation.
(By courtesy of http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/antarctica/circulation-en.html)

The ACC is usually considered to be the northern border of the Southern Ocean. As the ACC
links the ocean basins of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, the waters carried in the ACC
contain a mix of waters originating in different parts of the world. Water flows away from the ACC,
to the north and to the south, where it becomes a primary source for the Antarctic Bottom Water (Fig
1.11). In the ACC the three oceans exchange heat, salinity and nutrients, playing an important role in
the regulation of temperature and flow of the global conveyor belt. Along its course in the ACC, the
water exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere while cooling; the resulting dense
water sinks and transfers heat and gases into the deep ocean. These exchanges create water masses
with different properties and distribution patterns which are responsible for water properties in all the
world’s oceans (Figure 1.10); see Turner et al. (eds.) (2009) for further information.
The ACC is a massive flow of water of about 137±8×106 m3 s−1 that acts as a barrier separating
the Southern Ocean from the northern oceans. The ACC extends from the sea surface to depths of 4000 m
(more than 2.5 miles) and can be more than 120 miles wide. It is a very cold current with temperatures
ranging from –1 to 5°C depending on the season, and with speeds up to 2 knots (2.3 miles per hour or 3.7
km per hour).
Figure 1.9. Southern Ocean’s major currents south of 20ºS according to Rintoul et al., 2001 ( taken fromTurner et al.
2009) (F = Front; C = Current; G = Gyre) ; showing (i) the Polar Front and Sub-Antarctic Front, which are the major
fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current; (ii) other regional currents; (iii) the Weddell and Ross Sea Gyres; and
(iv) depths shallower than 3,500m shaded. In orange are shown (a) the cyclonic circulation west of the Kerguelen
Plateau, (b) the Australian-Antarctic Gyre (south of Australia), (c) the slope current, and the (d) cyclonic circulation
in the Bellingshausen Sea, and the eastern Weddell Gyre - Prydz Bay Gyre westward flow through Princess
Elizabeth Trough, and circulation east of Kerguelen Plateau.

The ACC is a huge current of 23,000 km long (at 55°S), about 2000 km wide and extends from
the surface to depths up to 2000–4000 m, with current speeds near the surface between 0.25 to 0.4 m/s,
and is not interrupted by any landmass on its path. However, the major topographic features that influence
the path of the ACC are the Drake Passage, Kerguelen Plateau (and Island), Campbell Plateau, Macquarie
Ridge, and the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge. The interaction of the ACC with these topographic features leads
to the generation of intense eddies, ranging in size from 10 to 100 km, which typically persist from
2 weeks to 4 months (Fig.1.9).
Antarctica is also the birthplace of deep ocean waters that make up part of the global Ocean
Conveyor. Water that flows at the bottom of the ocean is formed on the continental shelf, particularly in
the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea. As ice forms the water becomes saltier. As the ice drifts and gaps open
up, the water loses heat and gets colder with temperatures from -0.9°C to +0.4°C (30 to 32°F). Its density
increases to become the densest water in the world and it sinks to the bottom of the ocean (below ~4000
m) to flow throughout the world’s deep ocean. Different weather conditions a little further north at 45-
55°S causesto formanother water mass, called Antarctic Intermediate Water. In this area, precipitation is
greater than evaporation, so the salinity of the water is low. However, the water gets cooled and sinks to
flow through the ocean northward at depths of 600-1000 m.

Figure 1.10. Model of the global ocean circulation, emphasizing the central role played by the Southern Ocean.
NADW = North Atlantic Deep Water; CDW = Circumpolar Deep Water; AABW = Antarctic Bottom Water. Units
are in Sverdrups (1 Sv = 106× m3of water per second). The two primary overturning cells are the Upper Cell (red and
yellow), and the Lower Cell (blue, green, yellow). The bottom water of the Lower Cell (blue) wells up and joins
with the southward-flowing deep water (green or yellow), which connects with the upper cell (yellow and red). This
demonstrates the global link between Southern Ocean convection and bottom water formation and convective
processes in the Northern Hemisphere. From Lumpkin and Speer (2007; ©American Meteorological Society.) in
Turner et al. (eds.), 2009.Photo by Alfred Wegener Institute
(By courtesy from: https://www.awi.de/en/science/climate-sciences/physical-oceanography/
main-research-focus/southern-ocean-overturning-circulation/the-southern-ocean-
circulation.html)

The remoteness of the Southern Ocean and its harsh climate have long limited researchers’ ability
to study this region.Since the 1990s, radar altimeter measurements from instruments aboard the satellites
have provided scientists with an incomplete picture of sea levels and surface circulation in the open ocean
around Antarctica.
The ACC is traditionally identified as three primary oceanic fronts (Fig.1.9), although up to nine
fronts have been identified in some regions (Orsi et al., 1995). These fronts are very important in
contributing to the isolation of the Southern Ocean and delineate zones with distinct physical, chemical,
ecological and biological characteristics.
The three main fronts from north to southin Fig.1.9 are the Sub Antarctic Front(SAF), the Polar
Front(PF; also known as the Antarctic Convergence), and the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Front (SACCF). The waters of the Southern Ocean are isolated from saltier, warmer subtropical waters to
the north by the STF (between 35°S and 45°S). Between the ACC and the Antarctic continent there is a
fourth frontal zone called the westward flowing Antarctic Coastal (or Polar) Current, which is also
defined by the Antarctic Slope Front and has an important influence on water masses and circulation on
the continental shelf and in exchange of heat and mass at the seawater ice-shelf interface.
 The fronts vary in their position and in some places can come very close together, but each is
observed across the ACC independent of longitude. Water density increases southward across the fronts
inducing pressure gradients that give rise to high speed, narrow jets associated with the fronts. By
connecting the ocean basins, the ACC allows water masses and climate anomalies to propagate between
the basins. The current flow is concentrated in these circumpolar fronts, which extend from the sea
surface to the seafloor.
Eddies produced by dynamical instabilities of the fronts play an important role in the dynamics of
the ACC by transporting momentum vertically and heat and mass poleward. Both wind
and buoyancy forcing contribute to driving the ACC (1.11). The interaction between the deep-reaching
flow and the bottom topography establish bottom form stresses to balance the wind forcing. The strong
eastward flow of the ACC is intimately connected to an overturning circulation made up of two counter-
rotating cells (Fig.1.11). The water mass transformations driven by exchange of heat and moisture with
the atmosphere connect the upper and lower limbs of the thermohaline circulation. The transport and
storage of heat, freshwater, and carbon dioxide by the ACC has a significant influence on global and
regional climate.

Fig.1.11.Schematic view of the meridional overturning circulation of the Southern Ocean from South to North (left
to right in the figure), adapted from Speer et al . (2000) ©American Meteorological Society.. STF, Sub-Tropical
Front; SAF, Sub-Antarctic Front; PF, Polar Front; SAMW, Sub-Antarctic Mode Water; AAIW, Antarctic
Intermediate Water; UCDW, Upper Circumpolar Deep Water; LCDW, Lower Circumpolar Deep Water; AABW,
Antarctic Bottom Water; SAZ, Sub-Antarctic Zone; PFZ, Polar Frontal Zone; AZ, Antarctic Zone; SPZ, Sub-Polar
Zone. Arrows indicate mean flow direction. Red arrows show the upper cell and blue arrows show the deep cell.
Small arrows indicate diabatic transport due to interior mixing. Note that while the water moves north to south or
vice-versa, it also generally moves eastward (i.e., towards the observer), except along the coast where coastal
currents move water westward (away from the observer). (Taken from Turner et al. 2009,Alexandra et al 2014).
(With courtesy from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-view-of-the-meridional-
overturning-circulation-of-the-Southern-Ocean-adapted_fig3_265165800)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265165800_Environmental_Setting/citation/download
 With regard to the physical characteristics of the Antarctic Ocean, the zonally averaged sea surface
temperature (SST) is 0 °C at 61° S, while the equivalent temperature at 61° N is 4 °C higher while,
zonally there are considerable variations. The Atlantic and Indian Ocean sectors are up to 2–3 °C warmer
than the Pacific sector. The diurnal variation of SST in high latitudes is much less than 0.5 °C as a result
of the large amount of cloud cover and persistent strong winds.
The surface salinity in the Southern Ocean south of the ocean Polar Front is generally constant
around 33.9‰ , but local variations between 31 and 34.5‰ have been observed (Ostapoff 1965). The low
value is caused by ice melt. The Polar Front (or Antarctic Convergence) generally coincides with a
salinity minimum at 200 m depth of approximately 34.0–34.2 ‰ , while to the south there is a zonal ring
of maximum values greater than 34.6‰ .
The Southern Ocean is a major component of Earth's ocean and climate. Its circulation is complex,
with a zonal Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) interacting with a meridional thermohaline
circulation(Fig.1.11). The ACC is a highly variable, deep-reaching eastward flow driven mainly by the
westerly winds. It is the longest (24,000 km), largest transport of 137–147Sv (10 6 m3 s−1) and only current
to connect the major oceans. The Ekman component of the westerly winds also drives surface waters
north. Near the ACC's northern limit, these waters sink to form Subantarctic Mode and Antarctic
Intermediate waters, which continue north at depths <∼1,400 m. Interacting with the ACC is the density-
forced thermohaline circulation. Super cooling and increased salinity of shelf waters off the Weddell,
Wilkes Land and Ross coasts cause these waters to sink and flow equatorwards. The densest
component, Antarctic Bottom Water, is captured in deep basins around Antarctica. Less dense water is
entrained by the ACC and mixed with deep water moving south from the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
oceans. The resultant Lower Circumpolar Deep Water is tapped off by deep western boundary currents
that enter the three oceans at depths >∼2,000 m. These northward inflows, with a total volume transport
of ∼55.106 m3 s-1, disperse Antarctic and northern-sourced waters throughout the world ocean. Other
circulation elements are the deep-reaching, cyclonic Weddell, Ross and unnamed gyres located south of
the ACC. Further south again are the westward Antarctic Slope and Coastal currents that pass along the
Antarctic continental margin under easterly polar winds.
The eastward zonal transport with the ACC is superimposed by a meridional overturning
circulation, which is caused by a divergence in the large-scale mean wind field.Another part of the
upwelled deep water gets to the Antarctic continental margins by advection with the clockwise rotating
gyres of the Ross and Weddell Seas. Heat losses to the atmosphere, interactions with the adjacent ice
shelves, and salt enrichment by brine ejected from freezing sea ice result in very dense water masses
which run down the continental slope towards the deep sea floor. The newly formed and well ventilated
bottom water under-rides and steered by bottom topography, the ACC fills the deep basins of the world
ocean.
Fig.1.11 indicates a schematic two-cell meridional overturning circulation in the Southern Ocean.
The upper cell is primarily formed by northward Ekman transport and southward eddy transport in the
UCDW layer. A lower cell is primarily driven by dense water formation near Antarctica. Meridional
sections across the ACC indicate an equatorward flow of surface water due to the westerly wind stress
and poleward transport of subsurface and deep water (Fig.1.11). Meso-scale eddies between the surface to
2,000 m transfer most of the ocean heat toward the Antarctic continent. The Upper Circumpolar Deep
Water (UCDW) transports about 2 Sv southward, according to Wyrtki (1960). North Atlantic Deep Water
(NADW) and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW) move southward below the UCDW. The bottom
water flows northward (Fig.1.11).
The Antarctic Polar Front is located south of the ACC axis and south of the maximum westerlies.
The Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) forms in autumn–winter when shelf water begins to cool and ice
growth increases its salinity by brine drainage. The shelf water sinks down the continental slope when the
salinity is at least 34.51‰. The continental shelf edge around Antarctica has a depth of up to 800 m. The
regions where bottom water forms are the southwest and western Weddell Sea, the Ross Sea, the
Shackleton shelf glacier, and near-shore areas of Princess Martha Coast (5° E to 20° W).
 The Southern Ocean is the only place where there is extensive direct upwelling of deep water to the
sea surface occurs. Dynamically, this movement is attributable to the open latitude band (56–63° S) of the
Drake Passage. Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) at 67° S, 30° W has a potential temperature of −0.88 °C
and salinity of 34.64‰. The net buoyancy gain shown in Fig.(1.11)over much of the Southern Ocean is a
result of both heat input and net precipitation.
The most interesting oceanographic feature of Southern Ocean is the absence of permanent
thermocline that characterizes most of the world ocean (Tomczak and Godfrey 2003). As density
variations with depth are small, and the pressure gradient force is distributed more evenly throughout the
water column, currents can extend to great depths.
The northern boundary of Subantarctic Surface Water delimits the Subantarctic Front (SAF). The
sharp termination of the poleward extent of UCDW coincides with a frontal feature that separates the
ACC from the Weddell Gyre. The sea surface height (SSH) data showed that the ACC consists of
multiple frontal filaments or jets that are aligned along particular streamlines throughout the circumpolar
path of the current.
The ACC is bounded mainly by three fronts viz., the two Subantarctic and one Polar Front.
Fronts within the ACC are more barotropic and extend down to the ocean floor making them sensitive to
the topography. The number of fronts is reduced in regions where the path of the ACC is constricted or
blocked by topography, as in the case of Drake Passage.These fronts are associated with strong gradients
in temperature and salinity. Based on potential temperature criteria, the Polar Front is in the farthest
south, between 75° and 110° W at around 62° S, and around 61° S at 180° longitude. It is farthest north
(48° S) at 75° E and at about 50° S from 30° W to 30° E. It was understood from Argo floats data that the
southern ocean was the main recipient of heat from global warming during 2006–2013, in the upper 2,000
m of the global ocean and received at a rate of 0.4–0.6 W m-2( Roemmich et al.2015).
Emery and Meincke (1986) provided a summary of water masses in Southern Ocean. For the upper
500 m around Antarctica, they describe two water masses:
 Subantarctic Surface Water (SASW): 3.2–15 °C, 34.0–35.5 ‰
 Antarctic Surface Water (AASW): −1.0 to 1.0 °C, 34.0–34.6 ‰

Below 1,500 m, there are three water masses:

 Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW): 0.1–2.0 °C, 34.62–34.73 ‰
 North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW): 1.5–4.0 °C, 34.8–35.0‰
 Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW): −0.9 to 1.7 °C, 34.64–34.72‰

The subpolar Southern Ocean, south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), is arguably the
most important region on Earth for the cycling of carbon on centennial to millennial time
scales( Fig.1.12)
Global climate is critically sensitive to physical and biogeochemical dynamics in the subpolar
southern Ocean, since it is here that deep, carbon rich layers of the world ocean outcrop and exchange
carbon with the atmosphere. Observations in the Weddell Gyre which is a key representative region of the
subpolar Southern Ocean, show that the rate of carbon uptake is set by an interplay between the Gyre’s
horizontal circulation and the re-mineralization at mid depths of organic carbon sourced from biological
production in the central gyre. These results demonstrate that reframing the carbon cycle of the subpolar
Southern Ocean is an essential step to better define its role in past and future climate change.
The upwelling deep water in the Antarctic Divergence is rich in nutrients and in natural
CO2(Fig.1.12); without sea ice coverage hindering the gas exchange, it would release CO 2 to the
atmosphere. Due to primary production of organic carbon compounds through photosynthesis by
phytoplankton however CO2 is taken up(Tate Regan, 1914). Part of the organic material sinks as biogenic
particles and so carries carbon and nutrients downward to the deep ocean layers or to the sediment. This
process is called as the biological pump. Whether the Southern Ocean at large acts as a source or a sink of
CO2 for the atmosphere depends on the balance between the physical carbon pump coupled to the
overturning circulation and the biological pump. The wind-driven upwelling of deep water is
counteracted by mixing caused by mesoscale eddies. These eddies of typically 10 – 100 kilometers in
diameter form continuously in the ACC and then decay over weeks to months, influence the depth of the
surface mixed layer.

Understanding of the subpolar Southern Ocean carbon cycle has traditionally been considered in terms of
a two-dimensional latitude-depth framework, shown schematically in Fig.1.12. This framework reflects
the most conspicuous features of the regional circulation, which is characterized by intense water mass
transformations and vertical overturning. The Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) is rich in dissolved
inorganic carbon and is both upwelled to the surface through wind-driven divergence and conveyed to the
abyss through entrainment by dense waters cascading off the continental shelf, forming Antarctic Bottom
Water (AABW). Carbon stored within the inflowing CDW may thus be partly outgassed to the
atmosphere or transferred to the deep ocean, making these water mass transformations potentially critical
to the partitioning of carbon between the atmospheric and oceanic reservoirs.

Fig. 1.12.Schematic illustration of the conventional, two-dimensional, overturning-centric framework for the
subpolar Southern Ocean carbon cycle. Dotted lines delineate surface water (SW), CDW, and upper and lower
layers of AABW. SW: Surface Water, CDW: Circumpolar Deep Water, AABW: Antarctic Bottom Water,The color
coding denotes the total carbon ( CT) to denote the biological productivity adapted from Graeme et al (2019).
(From the courtesy of https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/8/eaav6410)

The other major pressure on Antarctic biota is the changing climate (Turner et al., 2009). About
50 per cent of the Southern Ocean is covered by ice in winter, decreasing to 10 per cent in summer. Ice
cover variation has important effects both on climate and on the biota in the Antarctic environment.
For the past 50 years the Antarctic marine ecosystem has been affected by climate change,
especially on the western side of the Peninsula, with its warming water and declining sea ice. Westerly
winds around the continent have increased by 20% since the 1970s and surface air temperature has
increased over the Antarctic Peninsula. Information from ice cores suggest that warming started around
1800. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current temperature increased by approximately 0.5°C between 300 m
to 1000 m. Böning et al. (2008) analyzed historical and recent data from drifting buoys, finding that the
wind-driven Antarctic Circumpolar Current has not augmented its transport, but reported warming and
freshening of the current on a hemispherical scale extending below 1000 m, meaning that transport and
meridional overturning are insensitive to changes in wind stress. Although the response of the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current and the carbon sink to wind-stress changes is under debate, it has been suggested
(Hallberg and Gnanadesikan, 2006; Meredith and Hogg, 2006) that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current’s
response to an increase in wind is a change in eddy activity rather than a change in transport. Given the
importance of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and its system of eddies in structuring the pelagic
ecosystem, the consequences of these changes cannot be foreseen.

1.6. Equatorial current system:

The equatorial area, as mentioned earlier, comprises of four currents. Viz., westward flowing
North and South equatorial currents, and eastward flowing Equtorial Counter and Under Currents as
shown in Fig.1.13 below. The unusual feature here is while the trade winds are easterlies, the Equatorial
counter and under currents flow from west to east. While the North Equatorial Counter Current (NECC),
is a surface current just north of the equator; the equatorial undercurrent, lies below the surface along the
equator.

Fig. 1.13. Cross section of zonal currents at 1500 W in Central Pacific

 (By courtesy of https://www.e-education.psu.edu/meteo451/node/713)

We know winds cause convergence and divergence of the Ekman transports, which lead to sea
surface height variations that drive geostrophic currents (Fig. 1.14A). The currents in the equatorial
Atlantic and Pacific are fairly similar because the wind distribution over these ocean basins is quite
similar. The Indian Ocean is quite different, largely due to the presence of the monsoons, as discussed in
detail under Indian Ocean circulation in section 1.4.

Fig.1.14A Vertical cross-section of the atmosphere and the ocean viewed from the south showing zonal walker
circulation in the atmosphere and the thermocline that shallows in the east in response to wind stress at the surface.
Also noted are the coastal upwelling off the coast of south America and the Equatorial under current flowing east at
the base of the thermocline

[Mann and Lazier – fig. 9.01 zonal cross section of equatorial thermocline]
Taken from:https://marine.rutgers.edu/dmcs/ms501/2004/NotesWilkin/#_Toc89497142)

The equatorial undercurrent is an eastward flowing current between about 50 and 200 m along the
equator (Fig.1.14A). The black strip in Fig.1.14B denotes the thermocline and it slopes upward toward
the east due to intense upwelling in the eastwhile the sea surface slopes up towards the west. The
Equatorial Under current is located at about the depth of the thermocline (black strip in Fig.1.14A) and it
flows towards the east as the pressure gradient pulls it upward the slope.It is approximately 400 km wide
and is an intense current with speeds as high as 1ms --1. Its existence can be explained by considering a
zone within the thermocline where there is no influence of the wind but there is still a pressure gradient
acts towards the east due to the slope of the sea surface which balances with friction(Fig. 1.14A).
(Remember, below the thermocline there is no pressure gradient.). As there is no Coriolis force on the
equator, the flow issimply along the pressure gradient.
It is interesting to note that the presence of the NECC is due to the fact that the latitude of the
minimum zonal winds (the Doldrums) is at the north of the equator. Had the Doldrums were centered on
the equator, there would not have been NECC. If the Doldrums were in the south of the equator, there
would have been a South Equatorial Countercurrent (SECC). The reason for the presence of Doldrums in
the north of the equator may be due to the land and sea distribution. There is more land in the northern
hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. This causes the shift of surface maximum temperature
towards north of the equator, which shifts the whole wind system to the north.

Fig.1.14B. .Schematic diagram showing the trade windcomponentat the surface,South Equatorial current (SEC)and
the Equatorial Under Current (EUC) in the thermocline, orientation ofthermocline (black strip) in the equatorial
region. (a) action of pressure gradient, (b)direction of flow of SEC and EUC and (c) Balance of forces at surface and
thermocline layers during La Nina
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/meteo451/node/713

1.6.1. Equatorial current system & El Nino:

El Niño is an unusually characterized warm ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific that
occurs once in every few years and has important consequences of weather around the globe, as opposed
to La Niña, which is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the Equatorial Pacific,
particularly off Peru coast. The term El Nino is a Latin word meaning ‘the child’. The fishermen of
Ecuador and Peru used the term of El Niñoto mean the ChildChrist as a way to describe a warm current
that causes mass mortality of fish every few years in their fishing areas, around Christmas time .This
warming is part of a chain of events that occurs throughout the Equatorial Pacific and results in dramatic
changes in climate and ocean circulation of the whole world. Sometimes the whole phenomenon is
referred to as ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation).
Normally, the cold Peru Current (or Humboldt Current) flows offshore from south to north.
Associated with this cold current is a process called "coastal upwelling," or the rising of cold subsurface
water. This upwelling water is rich in nutrients (nitrate and phosphate). These nutrients stimulate the
growth of microscopic green algae (phytoplankton), which then serve as food for small animals
(zooplankton). The plankton is eaten by fish (mainly anchovies and sardines), which are in turn caught by
bigger fish, sea lions, birds, and people. During an El Niño situation, when the warm current appears,
upwelling ceases and phytoplankton production is greatly diminished and the fish move either to colder
regions farther south or they starve to death .The other results of El Niño include severe drought in and
around Australia and Indonesia and associated with devastating bush fires in Australia and greatly
reduced productivity of fisheries in the Eastern Equatorial Pacific. Among other consequences are
increased rainfall across the southern end of the US, Mexico and in Peru, causing destructive flooding.
In order to understand the reasons for the occurrence of El Niño, we must first understand the
normal state of affairs (La Nina conditions, Fig.1.14) in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean. Generally eastern
equatorial oceans are colder than those in the west. The main reason for the coldness in the eastern oceans
is due to upwelling caused due to natural ocean surface circulation along the eastern shores of
oceans(west coasts of the continents). This temperature difference between east and west of the oceans
leads to a pressure difference between east and west and a thermally-driven circulation in the atmosphere
whereby air rises in the west and sinks particularly, throughout most of the Central and Eastern Equatorial
Pacific (Fig.1.14). Thus, surface air pressure is normally low in the west due to more heating and high in
the east due to low heating. Hence at the surface winds travel westward to replace the rising air in the
west. This is the reason for the occurrence of easterlies (trade winds) in the equatorial region.
Theseeasterlies further strengthen the SST gradient between west and east. Thus the ocean and
atmosphere are highly coupled and reinforced each other.in the Equatorial Pacific. The dynamics of this
thermally driven circulation are like the dynamics of the land-sea breezes and monsoons in Indian Ocean
region.

Fig. 1.14. Conditions during La Nina

(With the courtesy of W.S.Kessler,
NOAA/PMEL)https://faculty.washington.edu/kessler/occasionally-asked-questions.html

The reasons for the occurrence of ElNino has been well known. The El Niño usually begins with
the weakening of the trade winds (the easterlies) along the equator. Though the cause of this weakening is
not much known, it may be related to the variation in differential heating of the oceans in some years.
With the weakening of the trade winds, the sea surface begins to decrease its tilt (Fig.1.15). In actuality,
this is manifested by a wave that propagates eastward along the equator as a Kelvin wave instead of
flowing toward west under normal LaNina conditions (Fig.1.14).Due to this Kelvin wave propagation
from west earlier sea surface tilt reverses. As a result upwelling ceases to diminish and the thermocline
will goes to deeper layers. With a deeper thermocline in the east, upwelled water will not be as cold. Thus
the east-west SST gradient will begin to diminish.

Particularly these circumstances are very clearly known in equatorial Pacific region. The
development of an El Niño takes several months to a year. When it is fully developed, the SSTs are
considerably higher in the eastern Pacific and slightly lower in the western Pacific and the slopes of the
sea surface and thermocline are much smaller. Conditions in the atmosphere are weakened trade winds,
lower sea level pressure in the east and higher sea level pressure in the west. Most importantly, the zone
of rising air and precipitation shifts remarkably from the western to the central Pacific (Fig.1.15).
Fig.1.15. ElNino conditions. Note the deepening of thermocline during ElNino and shifting of warm pool. The
dashed slope line indicates during La Nina time. Solid line during ElNino time. (With the courtesy of W.S.Kessler,
NOAA/PMEL)&(With the courtesy of https://faculty.washington.edu/kessler/occasionally-asked-
questions.html)

Another event associated with the ElNino is called as Southern Oscillation. The east-west see-
saw oscillation of the pressure difference across the Equatorial Pacific is known as the Southern
Oscillation. Thus while El Niño is related to the anomalous increase in SST in the Equatorial Pacific, the
Southern Oscillation is related to the pressure difference. Remarkably both together playing a vital role in
the whole game.

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