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The development of residential spatial configuration for visual privacy in Iranian dwellings, a space syntax approach

February 2022 · International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print)

DOI:10.1108/IJBPA-05-2021-0080
Authors:

Fatemeh Sanusi Hassan Muhammad Hafeez Mohsen

Khozaei Universiti Sains Malaysia Abdul Nasir Mohammad
Dhofar University Universiti Sains Malaysia Taheri

Citations (8) References (47)

Abstract

Purpose The study's main objective is to evaluate the morphological

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developments in the characteristics of the spatial configurations of the residential
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layouts in Kerman, Iran, in examining the impact on the level of visual privacy
through the spectrum of permeability and wayfinding in space syntax analysis. 25+ million
Design/methodology/approach In this paper, plan graph analysis is used to
members
measure the syntactic properties of seven topological residential architecture
plans in Kerman, Iran, built from the 1970s to 2010s. The methodology involves 160+ million
the development of mathematical measurements to signify permeability and publication
simulation of visibility graph analysis (VGA) to indicate wayfinding. Findings The pages
findings reveal the residential layouts of Iranian houses tend to be less integrated 2.3+ billion
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over decades of design development from the 1970s to 2010s. Reduction in citations
spatial integration corresponds to increase segregation allowing for enhanced
visual privacy. The study underpins that, even with the constraints in the scale of
the house and reduction in the number of nodes, as evident in the design of the
modern residential layout, the efficient level of visual privacy is still achievable
with regards to the standards demanded by the local culture. Originality/value The
study examines the development in residential spatial configuration and building
scale on visual privacy through a proposed methodology based on the level of
permeability and wayfinding measured as a combined effect using the space
syntax analysis and visual accessibility.

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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
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The development of residential Residential

spatial
spatial configuration for visual configuration

privacy in Iranian dwellings,

a space syntax approach
Fatemeh Khozaei Ravari Received 26 May 2021
Revised 18 September 2021
Department of Architectural Engineering, Dhofar University, 17 November 2021
Salalah, Sultanate of Oman 6 January 2022
Accepted 31 January 2022
Ahmad Sanusi Hassan and Muhammad Hafeez Abdul Nasir
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang, Malaysia, and
Mohsen Mohammad Taheri
Islamic Azad University Kerman Branch, Kerman, Islamic Republic of Iran

Abstract
Purpose – The study’s main objective is to evaluate the morphological developments in the characteristics of
the spatial configurations of the residential layouts in Kerman, Iran, in examining the impact on the level of
visual privacy through the spectrum of permeability and wayfinding in space syntax analysis.
Design/methodology/approach – In this paper, plan graph analysis is used to measure the syntactic
properties of seven topological residential architecture plans in Kerman, Iran, built from the 1970s to 2010s. The
methodology involves the development of mathematical measurements to signify permeability and simulation
of visibility graph analysis (VGA) to indicate wayfinding.
Findings – The findings reveal the residential layouts of Iranian houses tend to be less integrated overdecades
of design development from the 1970s to 2010s. Reduction in spatial integration corresponds to increase
segregation allowingfor enhanced visualprivacy. The studyunderpins that, evenwith the constraints in the scale
of the house and reduction inthe number of nodes, as evident in the designof the modern residential layout, the
efficient level of visualprivacy is still achievable with regards to the standards demanded by the local culture.
Originality/value – The study examines the development in residential spatial configuration and building
scale on visual privacy through a proposed methodology based on the level of permeability and wayfinding
measured as a combined effect using the space syntax analysis and visual accessibility.
Keywords Space syntax, Spatial configuration, Visual privacy, Cultural values, Iran
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
In the second half of the 19th century, with particular reference to the reign of Naseroddin
Shah, the residential architecture of Iran witnessed a significant shift in residential
architecture from the traditional Islamic to Western Modernist architecture (Alalhesabi and
Korrani, 2013). One of the major factors contributing to the growing acceptance of the
Western Modernist design ideals in the traditional Persian architectural setting can be
indirectly associated with the repercussion of globalization of Western Modernist
architecture. The impact of the transformation is more prevalent on the residential
buildings upon the return of local architects who graduated from Europe (Alalhesabi and
Korrani, 2013). These Iranian architects who previously studied Architecture in Europe
began to disseminate Western Modernist design, particularly in the residential building.
The ramification of modernism witnessed the gradual loss of traditional architecture in International Journal of Building
Pathology and Adaptation
Iranian cities following the subsequent proliferation of western residential design in Iran © Emerald Publishing Limited
2398-4708
(Alalhesabi and Korrani, 2013). In the 19th and 20th centuries, following the subsequent DOI 10.1108/IJBPA-05-2021-0080

IJBPA political changes during the reign of the Qajar dynasty, Iran witnessed significant evolution
the residential architecture, most prominently characterized by the shrinkage of houses and
omission of the courtyard with the rise of residential apartment typology (Shabani et al., 2010;
Asadi et al., 2015). Shabani et al. (2010) connote the most significant repercussion is that it has
 led to the shift in the lifestyle, most notably the loss of the multi-functionality and privacy in
the indoor environment
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with reduced spatial dimensions.
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Modernization of architecture in Iran witnessed social and cultural ramifications, where
development in residential design undergoes gradual design transformations from low rise
courtyard house medium-rise courtyard and eventually the high-rise apartment (Shabani
et al., 2010; Madanipour, 2003). The growth of the modern apartment typology, especially in
large cities like Tehran, arises from the need to accommodate rising populations annually
coupled with the country’s increasing housing needs (Shabani et al., 2010). The typical
characteristics of the modern apartment associated with limited space design and lacking
adequate planning (Shabani et al., 2010) have created congested environments raising
concerns over the essential needs for protection against visual intrusion in residential design.
The traditional design of the courtyard houses, having the qualities of large spaces with
varying functionalities, is invariably regarded as the ideal design in safeguarding privacy
over the modern apartment.
In the republic of Iran, where Muslims accounted for a predominant share of the total
population and Islam as the main religion, it is essential that the design of the residential
layout incorporate the religious and cultural aspects in achieving privacy. Essentially, the
Islamic concept of privacy entails the segregation between males and females and the
separation of private and public spaces to safeguard privacy for family members. In Islam,
free social interaction is restricted only to males and females of the mahram (Alitajer and
Nojoumi, 2016). A mahram refers to a person who is in a degree of consanguinity, affinity, or
fosterage precluding marriage (Husin and Zawawi, 2012). The adverse repercussion of
gradual transformation in the residential layout design in Iran over the past decades
prominently from the traditional courtyard typology to the Western Modernist design
attributes behold deterioration in privacy as viewed from the spectrum of Islamic culture and
values (Shabani et al., 2010).
Shabani et al. (2010) argued privacy as a complex issue in Iranian residential design,
embodying connections to the human sense of place, adding that privacy in a residential
layout is affected by multiple levels concerning visual, acoustical to mental and eventually
the psychic privacy. Shabani et al. (2010) asserted that in the current residential layout design
of Iranian apartments with limited space dimensions driven by the building form, achieving
the optimum level of privacy through the provision of the multiple aspects is unattainable.
The transformation from the traditional courtyard house to modern apartments affected the
visual privacy of residential layout design (Shabani et al., 2010; Madanipour, 2003). In return,
Shabani et al. (2010) underscored the importance of understanding the minimum level of
privacy that each apartment layout as an alternative as a guideline to accommodate the
present needs for privacy in the contemporary Iranian residential lifestyle.
Comprehensive analysis on the spatial configuration of residential architecture is
essential to provide insights on the ways traditional and modern architecture accommodate
the needs for visual privacy of the household. Traditional Islamic and western modernism are
two contrasting value systems (Bartsch, 2015; Abdul Nasir and Hassan, 2018) that coexist
due to globalization, including the Iranian architecture and society (Al-Kodmany, 1999).
Alternatively, there are numerous studies on space syntax which attempted to explain how
spatial configurations express social or cultural meanings (Asif et al., 2018), which can be
employed in the study of residential spatial configuration and visual privacy (Mustafa and
Hassan, 2010a, b).

Although, presently, there are multiple accounts on the Iranian residential layout on the Residential
level of privacy through the space syntax analysis. However, none of the research managed to spatial
demonstrate the importance of the level of permeability and wayfinding as a combined aspect
in justifying the residential visual privacy through the syntax analyses. The level of
configuration
permeability and wayfinding are two interconnected concepts in the analysis of spatial
configurations (Beck, 2009; Abdul Nasir et al., 2021; Geng et al., 2021), yet, the profundity is
least addressed in the quantitative discourse related to residential design for privacy.
Therefore, it has become the premise of the research to evaluate the morphological
developments in the characteristics of the spatial configurations of the residential layouts in
Kerman, Iran, in examining the impact on the level of privacy through the spectrum of
permeability and wayfinding in space syntax analysis.
The study hypothesizes that reduction in the number of nodes (spaces) corresponds to the
reduction in spatial integration, thus the visual privacy. Globally, the research attempts to
include a general guideline on residential layout design in achieving visual privacy.

2. Literature review
2.1 Residential privacy
 p y
2.1.1 Visual privacy in Islam. Visual privacy in architecture entails the design decisions which
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contribute PDF the visual separation
towards Downloadbetween
citation different sections
Copy linkelements within the
and
home, between the home and the street, and between dwelling units (Abd Manaf et al., 2018).
Based on the Islamic standpoint, visual privacy is regarded as the protection of the
individual’s awrat (intimate parts) from the eyes of non-mahram (strangers and non-family
members) (Mortada, 2003). In contrast, Hakim (2013) and Mortada (2003) extend the definition
of visual privacy as protecting the family members with an emphasis on the female members
from the unsolicited views of the non-mahram. In fact, Ayman (2011) further added visual
privacy as entailing freedom to carry out daily routines free from observation of neighbors
and passers-by. Although there are multiple definitions of visual privacy in Islam, the
agreement lies within the needs for spatial design to safeguard against visual intrusion
(Hussin and Zawawi, 2012). In the scope of residential design, visual privacy can be achieved
through comprehensive analysis of the visual access of different spaces in a layout (Abd
Manaf et al., 2018) especially from the aspects of permeability and wayfinding. Visual
accessibility is an important determinant of the wayfinding performance of a spatial
configuration, thus the level of visual privacy (Abd Manaf et al., 2018).
Achieving privacy in a house requires the interior space to be invisible to strangers, and
the spatial configuration to be appropriate to provide efficient communication within the
house (Shabani et al., 2010; Alitajer and Nojoumi, 2016). Mustafa et al. (2010) define the level of
privacy into two broad categories essential to the residential space comprising of the public
and private. The public space is defined as the space that applies no restriction to interaction
and communication, whereas isolated space (private space) is the one that completely
constrains communication, whereas in between the public-private spaces accommodate the
intermediate levels of privacy (Mustafa et al., 2010).
2.1.2 Residential architecture of Iran. Traditional Iranian courtyard houses incorporate
two types of privacy, including privacy from the outside world and the privacy within the
household that requires physically separated spaces inside the residence. A traditional
courtyard house is comprised of two parts known as Andarouni (indoor) and Birouni
(outdoor), and this separation arises out of privacy considerations (Alitajer and Nojoumi,
2016). According to Haeri (2010), the Andarouni is a private indoor space for family members.
While the Birouni is a more accessible area where guests are welcomed upon entering the
house and then guided towards a particular space Andarouni section.

IJBPA On the other hand, in describing the modern Iranian residential apartment, Haeri (2010)
suggested two categories of living spaces comprising separated and combined areas. The
combined space is essentially characterized by the unclear district, while the separated
spaces refer to hidden spaces which are not immediately visible and are separated by walls
and partitions (Shabani et al., 2010). Ideally, in achieving the level of visual and acoustic
privacy as per requirements by the Islamic standpoint, the combined spaces should be
designed to accommodate the entrance, dining room or living room merely divided by
furniture while separated spaces include bedrooms, bathroom or toilets (Shabani et al., 2010).
Shahbani et al. (2010) itemized the design guidelines and considerations that must be
incorporated in designing Iranian houses that are effective in safeguarding minimum
privacy, including:
(1) Public area: This area encompasses the functionality, including family gatherings
with friends and relatives. This area needs the maximum potential of expanding and
most integrated space in the house. Common examples include the sitting/living
room, central hall and guestroom.
(2) Semi-public area: This space is considered the common area for the family members
to assemble. These spaces may have the potential for expansion with preparing the
minimum privacy.
(3) Semi-private area: This area comprised two or three people of family members. This
space is limited for the family only and cannot be expanded to differentiate from the
semi-public spaces.
(4) Private area: This is a territory designed for individual purposes. This space has
included all the privacy boundaries, the highest depth of space and was created for a
specific indoor area and function. Notable examples include bedroom, toilet and
bathroom.
Figure 1 illustrates the level of permeability in typical residential layouts in Iran as identified
by Shabani et al. (2010).
 2.2 Space
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2.2.1 Definition of space syntax. Originally developed by Bill Hillier and colleagues at the
University College London (Dettlaff, 2014), the space syntax analysis method is commonly
used to examine the influence of the spatial layout of buildings on the social outcomes of
human movement and social interaction (Dawson, 2002). The theory of space syntax aims to
analyze spaces and its configuration, with emphasis on its implications for social relations

Figure 1.
Permeability of spaces
and level of privacy in
Iranian residential
layout (Shabani
et al., 2010)

and pedestrian movement. Space syntax is a mathematically derived theory that provides a Residential
means of understanding the spatial configuration of a building from the perspective of the spatial
social interactions between inhabitants (Dawes and Ostwald, 2013). There are three
conventional approaches to space syntax research including the convex space, axial line and
configuration
visibility graph analyses (Dawes and Ostwald, 2013).
Additionally, the space syntax theory is a tangible analytical and representational tool
useful for the investigation of indoor spatial configurations in establishing relationships to
social patterns (McLane, 2013; Zolfagharkhani and Ostwald, 2021; Mustafa and Hassan,
2013), including the residential level of privacy (Alitajer and Nojoumi, 2016; Mustafa et al.,
2010). This means that in principle, the whole theory of space syntax is based on the rejection
of the metric properties of space in favor of topological data to represent spatial configuration
(Dettlaff, 2014). The theory of space syntax attempts to describe configured spaces as the
patterns of embodied experiences, where the inhabitants encounter in everyday life through
the notion of spatial configuration (McLane, 2013).

2.3 Level of permeability

Permeability refers to the level of connectivity between spatial units, which allows for easy
and direct access to each spatial unit within a building (McLane, 2013; Beck, 2009). Direct
permeability describes the relationship of adjacency between the cells, while controlling
permeability puts some cells in the relationship of control and containment of others (Hillier
and Hanson, 1989). Permeability characterizes the potential movement and navigation
patterns between spaces within a configuration. Apart from the justified graphs and
integration value, the convex maps and the axial line maps are two alternative methods to
measure the permeability of spaces (Hillier and Penn, 1991; McLane, 2013).
There are two types of spatial systems in the justified graph comprising the symmetrical
and asymmetrical systems as shown in Figure 2. The symmetric spatial system refers to the
spaces which are directly connected to the root space or the carrier having minimum depth. The
symmetric spatial system tends to be more integrated and has minimum segregation and high
functional efficiency (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013).This is because space segregation establishes
an inverse relationship with functional efficiency (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013; Mustafa and
Hassan, 2010a, b). On the other hand, the asymmetric spatial system defined by a linear
sequence of spaces with maximum depth creates high segregation and minimum integration,
resulting in low functional efficiency (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013; Mustafa and Hassan,
2010a, b).
The justified graph in space syntax analysis is invariably used to measure the level of
permeability of a spatial configuration (McLane, 2013). The level of permeability measures
the capacity to move through the different depths alongside relationships between these
spaces are then analyzed using graph theory (Zolfagharkhani and Ostwald, 2021). This
requires converting the spaces in the plan into the nodes defined numerically of a graph and
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Figure 2.
Asymmetric and
symmetric spatial
system (Mustafa and
Hassan, 2013)
(a) Asymmetric (b) Symmetric

IJBPA connections between these spaces into edges in the graph (Ostwald, 2011). The base of the
graph or “carrier” is then chosen to reflect the property being examined and often in most
cases, the carrier is the exterior (Ostwald, 2011). The topological position and the relationship
of nodes linked to other nodes within a spatial configuration are important in terms of their
permeability characteristics (McLane, 2013).

2.4 Level of wayfinding

The term “wayfinding” has originally was introduced by Lynch (1960), defining wayfinding
as “the process of determining and following a path or route between an origin and
destination.” In general terms, wayfinding is known as the process of navigation from a
present location to the desired destination (Hedhoud et al., 2014; Wiener et al., 2009). There are
three aspects affecting the level of wayfinding between a wayfinder and the surrounding
environment comprising the degree of differentiation (Li and Huang, 2020), the complexity of
the spatial layout (Li and Klippel, 2010) and visual access (Li and Huang, 2020).
The degree of differentiation determines the human’s ability to recognize the surrounding
environments. Varying aspects of the physical environment are found to be related to the
apparent clarity or legibility of an environment allowing different parts of the elements to be
organized into a coherent pattern that can be easily identified in the construction of the mental
image, which determines the level of wayfinding (Lynch, 1960). Among the elements of the
physical environment that can affect the level of wayfinding includes the element of paths,
nodes, edges, districts and landmarks (Lynch, 1960; Najmuddin et al., 2019). These urban design
elements are considered as the important elements associated with the level of wayfinding.
Although conceptually wayfinding and navigation in indoor and outdoor environments involve
similar activities, Karimi (2015) noted there are slight differences between the terms. For
instance, unlike the outdoor large-scale urban syntax analysis, in the limited constraint of indoor
spatial configuration examined through the topological plan, only the nodes and the connectivity
between them are considered to be important factors that influence the developmentof spatial
knowledge related to the wayfinding performance (Karimi, 2015).
The complexity of the spatial layout is an important aspect of understanding the
wayfinding behavior (Li and Klippel, 2010; Natapov et al., 2020). Layout complexity is the idea
of built environment configuration, understood as a network of interconnected units (Pouyan
et al., 2021) which corroborates with the space syntax interpreted through the connection
positions and the depth they traverse through the specified space in a spatial configuration
(Pouyan et al., 2021). In a relevant study on spatial complexity, Natapov et al. (2020) conducted
an objective spatial analysis of layout visibility and examined subjective judgments of
wayfinding difficulty. The spatial layout identified comprising linear, curved and grid-based
circulation. The study utilizes a space syntax measure of spatial intelligibility based on the
visibility graph analysis (VGA). Eventually, spatial intelligibility is calculated as a correlation
between two values, connectivity and integration. The outcome of the study revealed the
linear circulation is the easiest circulation, and grid-based is revealed to be the most difficult,
while curved circulation is considered intermediate.
The final aspect linked to wayfinding is visual access, which refers to which different
parts of the environment can be seen from a vantage point (Li and Huang, 2020; Li and
Klippel, 2010). Effective visual access in a spatial system is instrumental in the decision-
making process around exploration, and in a condition of limited signage, effective visual
access can facilitate wayfinding (Li and Huang, 2020).
The space syntax analysis has been increasingly used in wayfinding applications,
including formal descriptions of environments and predicating wayfinding performance
(Pouyan et al., 2021). The space syntax axial map, convex map and visibility graph are related
to the visual accessibility of the layout (Natapov et al., 2020; McLane, 2013). One of the roles
 Download full-text PDF Download citation Copy link

that the space syntax has on wayfinding is correlating environmental characteristics with Residential
wayfinder’s spatial preferences (Li and Klippel, 2010). The role of space syntax also includes spatial
the provision of a method to understand wayfinding strategies in an unfamiliar environment
(Li and Klippel, 2010). In general, space syntax provides formal descriptions through
configuration
quantitative methods and indicates the intelligibility of a space which is the property of the
space that allows a situated or immersed wayfinder to understand it (Li and Klippel, 2010).
Li and Huang (2020) introduced a study addressing the accessibility of vision, named
visual access, formed by the architecture and its association with visitor’s exploration
pattern. The study argues architecture influences visitors’ exploration, which is a type of
wayfinding behavior, and visual access seems to play an influential role in the decision-
making process around exploration, thus determining the wayfinding of a spatial
configuration (Li and Huang, 2020). Analysis of the visual accessibility through visibility
graph provides insights on the level of wayfinding as a determinant of residential privacy.
The relationship between visual access and wayfinding performance is explained in Table 1.

3. Research methodology
3.1 Case study
There are seven case studies of residential houses in the locality of Kerman, Iran, from the
design period of the 1970s to the 2010s. The timeline represents the development of
residential design, beginning from the traditional design with a centralized courtyard to the
recent modern apartment typology. The residential layouts of these houses represent
the typical characteristics in the space functionalities, scale and design arrangement of the
respective era in the selected architectural timeline. In the selection of the case studies, the
research begins with the initial survey of potential residential buildings achieved through
general visual observation and online search of residential buildings around the locality of
Kerman from varying period. Overall, there are a total of 350 residential units identified based
on an online search comprising a combination of villa and apartment typologies in the
locality. Out of the collection, only 50 of the home plans which can be retrieved from the local
municipalities of the city of Kerman. Then, the residential building plans were meticulously
examined to identify the shared characteristics in order to generalize the design of the indoor
spaces that represent typical indoor configuration of each architectural period between the
1970 and 2010s. Among the unique characteristics considered in the selection of the dwellings
include the location of the central hall, the shape of the spatial configuration, the location of
the entrance, the different programs and the scale of the house. These characteristics are
commonly considered in representing the unique properties of indoor spatial configuration
among the residential buildings (Fani Molki, 2017). The general idea in performing the
aforesaid procedure was to track the transformation of dwelling layouts in these decades to
find out the link between the configurational changes in the placement of various spaces in
the plan and privacy achievement for the family members. Eventually, the most
representative and typical plans of each decade in the timeline were selected to perform
the space syntax analysis. Each of the selected plans features special characteristics, which
will be discussed in relation to visual privacy through the space syntax analysis method.
According to Fani Molki (2017) from the early 1960s, drastic developments in residential
architecture took place where the spatial organization of housing was comprised of the
courtyard (open spaces) and building (closed spaces). In the typical Iranian residential
layouts, the courtyard is considered an open space that is located between the street and the
building and a house is comprised of multiple rooms and corridors. In contrast, closed spaces
are generally referred to as the spaces between two crossing walls with two facades. Over the
following decades, the apartment building became the dominant housing typology, and
traditional houses were gradually replaced. In contrast with traditional houses that had a

IJBPA
ual privacy
of space
 corresponds to a reduction in visu
Increased visual access/visibility
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Relationship with visual privacy

(Li and Klippel, 2010)

•

number of visitors to a space (Li and Huang, 2020)

An increase in visual access may contribute more

Direct visual access has a great impact on the

to the visitors’ urge to visit a particular space
(Li and Huang, 2020)
Scale of measurement

•
impact on wayfinding performance (H€olscher
Familiarity with a building has a substantial

Affects the decision-making process around

exploration (Li and Huang, 2020)
Wayfinding performance and privacy

et al., 2012)
Characteristics

Table 1.
•

Relationship between
wayfinding
performance and
Visual
access

visual privacy

private courtyard, this new apartment typology embodies smaller courtyards that are shared Residential
by all the families of the apartment building. In the 1970s, new regulations for the spatial
construction of buildings were introduced, which stipulate that a maximum of 60% of a plot
of land can be covered, with the remaining 40% to be left as open space. Ultimately, instead of
configuration
the central courtyard, the present design of the courtyard in the residential apartment
building is shifted to the front of a building.

3.2 Space syntax analysis of residential layout

In examining the impact of spatial configuration on the level of privacy of the layout design of
residential buildings in Iran, the study utilizes Hillier and Hanson’s space syntax analysis
method. One of the most well-known Space Syntax techniques is Convex Space analysis,
which is also known as Justified Plan Graph analysis. This method commences by identifying
the main visually or functionally defined spaces in a plan and the connections between them.
In the method, the morphological characteristics of each residential layout are analyzed from
the spectrum of depths of space to indicate permeability through the justified access graphs.
 The word “justified” refers to the process of arranging the graph by the relative depth of
nodes from a given starting point,
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generally known as the “carrierCopy
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” or “link
root” space (Klarqvist,
2015). The carrier space in the analysis is the starting point outside of the residential dwelling
(Ostwald, 2011). Spaces inside the residential unit were initially labeled numerically to
represent different points (nodes) in the house and arranged horizontally according to their
respective depth values in the justified graph as shown in Figure 3.
In the justified graphs the carrier, or the point of a viewer, is placed atthe base of the graph,
and from that, the nodes representing the labeled spaces spread horizontally and vertically,
indicating the permeability depths. The relationshipsbetween the nodes are represented in the
connectivity links between them. The relevance of such topological representation is that it
illustrates in the simplistic form the main morphological properties of spaces comprising the
symmetry and asymmetry, coupled with distributedness and non-distributedness of spaces
embodying the layout (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013; Ostwald, 2011). The information can be
subjected to interpretations to relate with the users’ behavior (Sadek and Shepley, 2016).
The relationship between the nodes on the justified graph can be established in two
distinct characters; symmetry and asymmetry, as shown in Figure 4. The symmetry/
asymmetry property of a node in the justified graph is about the integrating/segregating or
less private/more private effects of space in reference to the residential layout (Muastafa and
Hassan, 2013).
Following the creation of the justified graphs, each of the designed spaces will be analyzed
individually from the syntactic properties, including the total depth value (D i), mean depth
(M.D.i ), real relative asymmetry (R.R.A. i) and integration value (R n). These syntactic
properties have significant roles in interpreting the level of privacy in the spatial
configuration of each residential layout. The integration and permeability indicators are

Figure 3.
Creation of justified
graph based on
numerical labels of
spaces

IJBPA
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Figure 4.
The configurations of
units and permeability
links (McLane, 2013)

crucial parameters in determining how “busy” or how “quiet” a space is, which can be directly
routed to the privacy of the house (Mustafa et al., 2010).
3.3 Quantitative spatial analysis of residential layout
There are four main syntactic measures in performing the analysis of a spatial structure,
including total depth value, mean depth value, relative asymmetry and integration value
(Klarqvist, 2015).
3.3.1 Total depth value of a node.
X n
Di ¼ dij
j¼1

The depth from the root is considered as the number of steps that separate a determined space
from the carrier (Wu and Guo, 2014). The total depth value of the ith node, d ij is the shortest

path between the ith and jth nodes n is the number of nodes (Wu and Guo, 2014). The depth of Residential
space determines the level of privacy of a residential layout as the weaker connection of space spatial
to other spaces and, thus, greater depth of space compared to other spaces denotes that the
accessibility of that space is more difficult and its spatial intimacy is higher (Alitajer and
configuration
Nojoumi, 2016). In principle, the higher the degree of intimacy (isolation) of space increases
the level of visual privacy of the space.
3.3.2 Mean depth value of a node.
Pn
dij
j¼1
M :Di ¼
ðn  1Þ

M.D.i is the mean depth value of the ith node (Wu and Guo, 2014).
3.3.3 Relative asymmetry and the real relative asymmetry (R.R.Ai). Relative asymmetry
(R.A.) numerically expresses a key aspect of the shape of the justified graph from that space
(Mustafa and Hassan, 2013). The Relative Asymmetry of a space has a range value from 0 to 1
(Ostwald, 2011).
2ðM :Di  1Þ
Relative Asymmetry; R:A:i ¼
ðn  2Þ

Real relative asymmetry (R.R.A.) revolves around the number (1); values of less than (1) refer
to the most integrated space and less segregation in the system, while the values that more
than (1) refer to the most segregated spaces (Mustafa et al. 2010). The spatial configuration of
layouts with low mean R.R.A. values tend to be segregated, controlled and less efficient in
terms of function (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013). A higher mean value of (R.R.A.) indicates
greater control over movement and increases the degree of social hierarchy, which increases
privacy (Mustafa et al., 2010).
R:Ai
R:R:A:i ¼
D

where D is the coefficient related to the number of lines given by Hillier and Hanson (1989).
3.3.4 The integration value (Rn). Integration is a static global measure describing the
average depth of space relative to the rest of the spaces in a system. The integration value
gives the degree to which a node is integrated or segregated from the system (Ostwald, 2011).
Integration is the measure of the depth of spatial configuration, or how many spatial units
(comparable to walking around the corner) one must pass through before getting at a
particular unit (McLane, 2013). Thus, the space that is located the farthest in the justified
graph, and is accessed through the highest number of intervening units, is regarded as the
least integrated.
 ¼
RncitationR:R1:A:
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The integration value (R n) indicates the degree to which a node is integrated or segregated
from a spatial system (Wu and Guo, 2014). When spaces are more integrated, the level of
privacy is reduced (Zolfagharkhani and Ostwald, 2021). This is because a node (space) is said
to be more integrated if all of the other nodes can be reached after traversing only a small
number of intervening nodes (Zolfagharkhani and Ostwald, 2021; Mustafa and Hassan, 2013).
In contrast, the less integrated space embodies large numbers of intermediate nodes and

IJBPA becoming more segregated (Mustafa and Hassan, 2013). This means that a high integration
value corresponds to less privacy of space as the level of permeability.
The integration value is derived from the concept of relative depth and is calculated from
the mean of the minimum relative depth from the root component. The integration value can
be viewed as conveying the comparative level of accessibility for all components in the
system. Collectively, the definitions, scale of measurement and relationship of each of the
aforementioned parameters to the concept of privacy in the residential layout are summarized
as shown in Table 2.

Level of permeability and privacy

Syntactic
properties Definition Scales of measurement Relationship with privacy

Mean Depth The M.D. is the average
value (M.D. i) degree of depth of a node in
a justified plan graph
(Ostwald, 2011)
Relative The value of R.A.
Asymmetry determines the degree of
(R.A.)i isolation of a space
(Ostwald, 2011)
Real relative R.R.A. describes the degree
Asymmetry of isolation or depth of a
(R.R.A. i) node in comparison with a
suitably scaled and
idealized benchmark
configuration (Ostwald,
2011)
Integration Integration, also called
value (Rn) availability, is a variable
that refers to how a space is
connected with other
spaces in its surroundings
(Alitajer and Nojoumi,
2016)
Table 2.
The relationship
between aspects of
permeability and
privacy
A room depth that is Spaces at a higher level than
higher than the M.D. is the mean depth on the
more isolated than a room justified graph are more
depth which is lower than isolated, corresponding to a
the mean depth (Ostwald, higher level of privacy
2011)
Relative asymmetry has a R.A. values close to
range value from 0 to 1 0 corresponds to maximum
(Ostwald, 2011). Zero integration, minimum
indicates maximum segregation, and less privacy
integration, that is, no
depth, high functional
efficiency (Mustafa and
Hassan, 2013). One
indicates maximum
segregation, maximum
depth, and low functional
efficiency (Mustafa and
Hassan, 2013)
R.R.A value varies around Spaces with R.R.A. values
the number (1); values of less than 1 represent most
less than (1) refer to the integrated, indicating reduced
most integrated spaces privacy
and less segregation in the
system, while the values
that more than (1) refer to
the most segregated
spaces (Mustafa and
Hassan, 2010a, b)
A space that is located the When spaces have become
farthest in the justified more integrated, privacy is
graph, and is accessed reduced (Zolfagharkhani and
through the highest Ostwald, 2021). The public
number of intervening space with high integration
units, is regarded as the value are ideal, while the
least integrated (McLane, private space low integration
2013; Mustafa and Hassan, is ideal (Geng et al., 2021)
2013)
High integration equates to
high connectivity (Alitajer
and Nojoumi, 2016)
 Download full-text PDF Download citation Copy link

3.4 Visual graph analysis (VGA) in DepthmapX Residential

Visual access is identified as a critical factor in determining the wayfinding in a spatial layout spatial
(Geng et al., 2021; Li and Klippel, 2010) and may contribute more to the person’s urge to visit a
particular space (Li and Huang, 2020) which indirectly affects the level of privacy of a house.
configuration
Visual access of a layout is invariably evaluated through Visual Graph Analysis (VGA)
defined as the representation of isovists to mutually all visible locations in the environment
(Li and Klippel, 2010). An isovist is the shape of the space a person can perceive in vision at a
defined location in the environment considered (Li and Klippel, 2010). VGA represents a
couple of elements of environment contributing to wayfinding that are essential to the
development of the spatial knowledge (Geng et al., 2021). In essence, VGA allows for the
evaluation of the visibility in areas of access and restrictions by walls (boundaries), two
important determinants of wayfinding in regards to the privacy of a residential layout (Abd
Manaf et al., 2018; Geng et al., 2021). Ideally, the public spaces are commonly attributed to
high visual access while the private spaces have low visual access. VGA has been previously
studied to demonstrate wayfinding based on varying scales of visual access (Geng
et al., 2021).
The UCL Depthmap is a specialized software package that contributes to the
identification and evaluation of spaces (Alitajer and Noujumi, 2016). Depth map was
created by Alasdair Turner at University College London (DepthmapX, 2021). The
software is the open-source and multi-platform spatial analysis used to perform
simulation for spatial networks of different scales (McLane, 2013). The depth maps
feature the simulation of visual accessibility of a place in a number of ways. It has the
capability to create a point isovist (polygons that represent the visually accessible area
from a location) and isovist paths that showcase the shift in views when navigating
throughspace of different depths (DepthmapX, 2021).
Moving through the space, the visibility access is measured by the inter-visibility
of the center of each space (McLane, 2013). The program evaluates visibility access
through visibility graphs. In the visibility graph, the connections representing the
inter-visibility of points are represented in different colorations according to how
many other locations are visible from it (DepthmapX, 2021; McLane, 2013). The range
runs from blue (for low visibility) through green and yellow to red (high visibility)
(McLane, 2013). In examining the visibility graph, the dark red color spectrum
indicates that the highest degree of visual connectivity while the dark blue color
spectrum represents the lowest visual connectivity, as depicted in Figure 5
(McLane, 2013).
The process of generating the visual accessibility graph begins in the DepthmapX
with the construction of 2D vector drawing of the residential layout in AutoCad.
These drawings are then exported as dxf file from AutoCad which is later imported
into the DepthmapX software. In DepthmapX, the program identifies the selected
regions representing the area to perform the simulation of visual access in the house.
Then, the program calculates the distribution of minimum and maximum visual
access across the selected regions represented through different colorations as shown
in Figure 5.

Figure 5.
Scale of measurement
of visual accessibility
graph (McLane, 2013)

IJBPA 4. Results and analysis

 4.1 The level of permeability using space syntax
In examining the morphological
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development in residential layout design on visual privacy,
the study identifiesDownload citation
seven case Copy link
studies of residential houses of different timelines from the
1970s–2010s. It is worth noting that, in examining the impact of spatial configuration on
wayfinding in relation to privacy, the method used in this research is limited to the scope
concerning the space syntax analysis. Specifically, the research focuses on the spatial
arrangement on the level of permeability and wayfinding as part to justify the level of privacy
of the residential layout. Having said that, the aspects of geometry embodying each space on
wayfinding behavior are not included in the scope of the study, which is considered as a
limitation of the study.
4.1.1 House plan in the 1970s. In this decade, a majority of residential layout incorporates a
square or rectangular transitional space in the middle where the entries to the bedroom,
guestroom, kitchen and bath rooms are directly attached. The layout of the house resembles
traditional courtyard houses where the yard is located at the center allowing access to
different spaces of the home. The kitchen design is mostly enclosed and gradually developed
to open kitchens in the successive decades. Figure 6 illustrates the layout plan and justified
graph of 1970s house.
Based on Figure 6, the room with minimum depth is the central hall, while the maximum
depth is observed at the bathroom “10”. The hall “2” is the most integrated space in the house
connecting the center of the house to the peripheral spaces, as illustrated in the justified
graph. An interesting feature of a ring is observed on the depth of space 2 as the guestroom
“11” has two entries directly connected to the hall “2” and “12”. The number of intervening
units to reach the bedroom is minimal due to the location of the central hall, which secures the

n = 13
T.D. = 31
M.D. = 2.58
R.A. = 0.29
D = 0.276
R.R.A. = 1.05
Rn = 0.95
Carpark 8 Toilet/WC
2 Hall 9 Airlock
3 Bedroom 10 Bathroom/Shower
Figure 6. 4 Bedroom 11 Guestroom
Layout plan and 5 Bedroom 12 Corridor
justified graph of
1970s house 6 Corridor 13 Kitchen
7 Washroom

location of the private spaces at minimum depth. The bedrooms “3”, “4”, “5” are located on Residential
level 2 in the justified graph, which is lower than the M.D. of the house (M.D. 5 2.58). The spatial
depth demonstrates minimal isolation and a majority of spaces are directly integrated with
the rest of the layout. The R.A. of the house is close to 0 (R.A. 5 0.29), with tendency towards
configuration
maximum integration and minimum segregation. The value of R.R.A. is slightly more than 1,
indicating that the overall configuration is slightly segregated. Clearly, there is no distinct
separation between the private spaces (bedroom) and public spaces due to highly integrated
spatial design, which is not ideal for visual privacy.
4.1.2 House plan in the 1980s (a). The home layouts from the 1970s to the 1980s do not
show a great transformation with a central transitional space with rooms encapsulating the
perimeter. The tendency to allocate a separate space as a guest room is reflected the
residential layout. The justified graph in Figure 7 depicts an asymmetrical spatial structure
with 4 permeability steps. The overall graph demonstrates the simple spatial configuration
with the central hall “2” as the most integrated space that links all the peripheral spaces.
 From the justified graph it is clear that the central hall “2” is the central feature of the house
that secures
Download full-textthe
PDFrest of the spacesDownload
in the layout with similar designCopy
citation characteristics
link as found in
the 1970s residential layout. The justified graph showcases the bathroom “6” and toilet “7” as
the spaces with the highest depth of space of 3 from the known carrier. It is worth noting that
the bedrooms “3”, “4” (private spaces) are located below the M.D. of 2.0, indicating minimal
isolation and tendency towards being more integrated with the rest of the spaces, making it a
design condition that is less ideal for privacy. The layout has a R.A. of 0.22 corresponding to
maximum integration and minimum segregation spaces. When the value is normalized, the
R.R.A. becomes 0.75 implying the design toward a slight segregation. Another interesting
feature of the house is the existence of a circulation ring that is clearly visible in the justified

n = 11
T.D. = 20
M.D. = 2
R.A. = 0.22
D = 0.295
R.R.A = 0.75
Rn s = 1.33

Ꚛ Entry 7 Toilet
2 Hall 8 Kitchen
3 Bedroom 9 Sitting room Figure 7.
4 Bedroom 10 Guestroom Layout plan and
justified graph of the
5 Sink/washroom 11 Corridor 1980s (a) house
6 Bathroom

IJBPA graph connecting spaces “2”, “9”, “10”. The ring becomes a circulation pivot demonstrating
the greater potentiality of free movement (McLane, 2013).
4.1.3 House plan in 1980s (b). The overall spatial configuration of the house is
asymmetrical with maximum permeability steps of 5. Characteristically, the small entry
corridor “2” diverges into two separate zones; the public and the private. The spatial layout
design in Figure 8 features the central hall “3” as the most integrated space in the house, with
the peripheral spaces directly attached to the hall. The plan showcases a clear separation of
distinctive spaces in the house by the central hall “3” encompassing the private areas
(bedrooms and toilets) alongside public (guestroom, kitchen and hall).
The private spaces are located slightly higher than the mean (M.D. 5 3.28) of the
residential layout, indicating increased isolation and ideal for privacy. The house features the
R.A. of 0.35, demonstrating maximum integration and minimal segregation as the spaces in
the house are joined together by the central hall, as illustrated in the Figure. The R.R.A. of the
house is 1.35 representing a clear segregation of spaces in the layout. The R n is of the layout is
slightly smaller than the previous houses accounting for 0.74. Accordingly, smaller Rn
equates less integration and an increased level of privacy.
4.1.4 House plan in the 1990s (a). Several distinctions are apparent in the residential layout
of this decade as compared to the previous decades, most notably the “L” shape space
incorporating the hall and the guest room fading, the fading boundary of the guest room with
the border of the closed guestroom removed. This is clearly represented in the plan layout as
depicted in Figure 9.
Figure 9 illustrates the residential layout of the 1990s, and the overall scheme indicates the
reduction in spatial dimensions. Characteristically, the layout identifies the hall as a central

5
 4
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3

n = 15
T.D. = 46
M.D.= 3.28
R.A. = 0.35
D = 0.259
R.R.A. = 1.35
Rn = 0.74
Ꚛ Entry 9 Bedroom
2 Corridor 10 Bedroom
3 Hall 11 Bedroom
4 Sink/washroom 12 Bedroom
Figure 8. 5 Toilet 13 Guestroom
Layout plan and 6 Corridor 14 Kitchen
justified graph of the
1980s (b) house 7 Airlock 15 Hall
8 Bathroom

Residential
spatial
configuration

n = 11
T.D. = 28
M.D. = 2.55
R.A. = 0.31
D = 0.285
R.R.A. = 1.08
Rn = 0.92

Ꚛ Entry 7 Bathroom/Shower
2 Corridor 8 Sink/ Washroom
3 Hall 9 Toilet Figure 9.
4 Kitchen 10 Bedroom Layout plan and
justified graph of the
5 Bedroom 11 Bedroom 1990s (a) house
6 Airlock

feature that integrates the peripheral spaces to the center of the house. The spatial
configuration forms asymmetrical characteristics with a total depth of space of 4. The layout
has the M.D. of 2.55 where it is clear that a majority of the spaces are located above M.D., thus
suggesting an increased level of isolation for a majority of the spaces in the house. The node
“3” representing the central hall demonstrates the most integrated space in the house
connecting the central zone to the peripheral spaces. The immediate corridor “2” is located on
the shallowest node in the justified graph, while the bathrooms “7” and “9” as the most
intimate nodes of the house. The bedrooms “5” and “10” are directly integrated into the central
hall “3”, which is not an ideal quality for visual privacy. The R.A. of the layout is 0.31, which
corresponds to R.R.A. of 1.26, subsequently corresponding to having the tendency towards
segregation as the mean R.R.A is greater than 1. The layout has a relatively high R n
accounted for 0.92, indicating reduced segregation which is not ideal for visual privacy.
4.1.5 House plan in the 1990s (b). Common features found in the residential layout of this
decade include the separation of the private and semi-private zones and treated as two
 distinct zones. As illustrated in Figure 10, the design of the open-plan kitchen is located in the
middle between the bedrooms and
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the guestroom.
In Figure 10, it is apparent Download
that the citation Copy link
house has an asymmetrical configuration and a
relatively simple spatial structure as depicted in the justified graph with a maximum depth of
space of 4. Node “2” forms most integrated nodes diverging into the public and the private
zones in the layout. The sitting room “4” has the shallowest depth of space one while the
bedrooms “6” and “8” are on the uppermost depth of space in the justified graph. This
condition of clear separation in spatial hierarchy is ideal for residential visual privacy. The
residential layout showcases a clear separation between the open space public areas and
private spaces through the incorporation of a simple corridor between the sitting room “4”
and the private zones of the house “5”, “6”, “7” and “8”. The layout has a high M.D. of 3 where

IJBPA
4

n=8
T.D. = 21
M.D. = 3
R.A. = 0.67
D = 0.328
R.R.A. = 2.04
Rn = 0.49

Figure 10. Ꚛ Entry 5 Corridor

Layout plan and 2 Corridor 6 Bedroom
justified graph of the
1990s (b) house 3 Kitchen 7 Toilet/bathroom
4 Sitting room 8 Bedroom

the spaces in the residential layout are above the M.D. In the meantime, the R.A. and the
R.R.A. of the house account for 0.67 and 2.04, respectively. The R.R.A. of the house is
significantly higher than 1, underscoring the tendency towards maximum segregation in the
overall layout. The Rn of the house is significantly lower than the rest of the residential
layouts, with 0.49 indicating the spaces are less integrated and segregated, which echoes the
R.A. of the house. The design with less integration among the spaces is ideal for achieving
privacy.
4.1.6 House plan in the 2000s. The justified graph in Figure 11 shows an asymmetrical
spatial configuration without a circulation ring. Overall, the residential layout is relatively
shallow with a maximum depth of space of 4, as depicted. Corridor “3” is the most integrated
space connecting the public and the private spaces in the house.
In reference to the plan, it is apparent that the design establishes the visual separation
between the public and the private zones in the house to arrive at visual privacy. The main
hall “2” is located on the lowest depth of 1, while the patio “12” and bathroom “7” are located
on the most intimate level of 4 in the justified graph. The house is made up of 12 nodes with
the M.D. of the house is 2.81, with a majority of the spaces, are located at higher level than the
M.D. except for the hall “2”. This means a majority of the spaces inside the residence were
arranged in an increasing tendency for isolation. Overall, the R.A. of the house is 0.36,
corresponding to R.R.A. of 1.26. Since the R.R.A. is higher than 1, the overall spatial
configuration develops a pattern with the tendency towards segregation rather than
integration. The mean integration value R n of the residential layout is 0.79, which is relatively
higher than the previous residential layout, thus equivalent to reduced segregation and less
privacy.
Download full-text PDF Download citation Copy link

Residential
spatial
4 configuration
3

n = 12
T.D. = 31
M.D. = 2.81
R.A. = 0.36
D = 0.285
R.R.A. = 1.26
Rn = 0.79

Ꚛ Entry 7 Bathroom/Shower
2 Hall 8 Bedroom
3 Corridor 9 Bedroom Figure 11.
4 Toilet 10 Dry Kitchen Layout plan and
justified graph of
5 Bathroom 11 Wet Kitchen 2000s house
6 Bedroom 12 Patio

4.1.7 House plan in the 2010s. The justified graph in Figure 12 illustrates the configuration of
the residential layout is asymmetrical with a maximum depth of space 6 as depicted in the
justified graph. The characteristic of the justified graph does not contain a circulation ring. In
the spatial configuration, the central hall “2” is the most public among the spaces and is
located at the shallowest depth on the graph.
In contrast, bathroom “14” is the most intimate node located at the highest depth of 6. It is
worth noting that the bedrooms “4”, “5”, “7” and “8” located on the perimeter of the residence
are directly integrated with the central hall “2” and the sitting room “6”, which is a major
drawback in achieving visual privacy. The residence has an M.D. of 3.30, and a majority of the
spaces inside the house are located in a greater depth than the M.D. The R.A. is 0.39 with a
corresponding R.R.A. of 1.46, which is greater than 1, indicating the tendency towards spatial
segregation. The integration value R n is relatively smaller than the rest of the residential
layouts, with 0.68 representing that the spaces are more segregated, thus increasing the level
of privacy.

4.2 The level of wayfinding using visibility analysis

The visibility analysis is presented in an eye-level visibility graph of all visually accessible
areas within the ground floor configuration and includes the measures of connectivity and
integration (McLane, 2013). The colors of the visibility graph of visual access range from dark
blue to dark red, representing low to high visibility, respectively (McLane, 2013). Visibility
analysis provides visual information that attracts visitors’ attention to spatial configurations,
IJBPA
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n = 14
T.D.= 43
M.D. = 3.30
R.A. = 0.39
D = 0.267
R.R.A. =1.46
Rn = 0.68

Ꚛ Carpark 8 Bedroom
2 Hall 9 Corridor
3 Corridor 10 Kitchen
Figure 12. 4 Bedroom 11 Sink/Washroom
Layout plan and 5 Bedroom 12 Toilet
justified graph of
2010s house 6 Sitting room 13 Airlock
7 Bedroom 14 Bathroom

features and points them out into directions of potential uses (Bafna, 2003), which indicates
wayfinding.
4.2.1 House plan in the 1970s. An examination on the visibility access graph of 1970s
residential layout as shown in Figure 13 indicates that the highest degree of visual access
(represented in red color) is concentrated around the central hall “2”. The visibility access
increases gradually towards the guestroom “11” while the bedrooms “3”, “4”, “5” had much
lower visibility values. The spaces with the lowest visual access (represented in dark blue
colors) are located around the most intimate spaces in the house, which are toilet “8” and
bathroom “10”. The design is ideal in achieving visual privacy as visual access is limited to
the public spaces than the private spaces. Overall, the layout demonstrates an ideal spatial
configuration for wayfinding as the design directs users to points of public use with less
visual access towards the private spaces, including the bedroom and toilet/bathroom.
4.2.2 House plan in 1980s (a). Figure 14 represents the visual access of the residential
layout in the 1980s and it is apparent in the graph the residential layout demonstrates a clear
separation in the level of visual accessibility between the public and the private zones in the
house. As depicted in Figure 14, the regions of high visual accessibility are found on the
central hall “2”, the guestroom “10”, and sitting room “9”.

Residential
spatial
configuration
 Download full-text PDF Download citation Copy link

Figure 13.
Visibility graph
1970s house

Figure 14.
Visibility graph 1980s
(a) house

On the contrary, the private zones embodying the bedrooms “3” and”4” represent the lower
visual accessibility. Although the bathroom and toilet are directly integrated with the central
hall, the visibility of these intimate spaces represents the spaces with the least visual access
(dark blue). This is ideal for wayfinding in the house as the layout provides a clear direction
toward the public space with minimal visibility towards the private space. Thus, the visual
privacy of the house can be achieved.
4.2.3 House plan in the 1980s (b). Figure 15 shows the visibility graph for residential
layout of the 1980s (b). Overall, the residential layout of the 1980s (b) demonstrates limited
visual access, and the only zones that exhibit high visual access can be seen on the central hall
“3” and guestroom “13” as depicted in Figure 15.

IJBPA

Figure 15.
Visibility graph 1980s
(b) house

The private zones, including the bedrooms “10”, “11”, “12”, are located on zones with
minimum visibility. The shortcoming of the layout design only lies in bedroom “12” as the
bedroom is directly integrated with hall “2”. In fact, the kitchen “14” and the hall “15” are
slightly hidden from visual access. The wayfinding is of the house considered good for visual
privacy as the users have clear navigation towards the public spaces, and private spaces are
hidden from immediate visibility upon entering into the house.
4.2.4 House plan in 1990s (a). The visibility access of the 1990s house in Figure 16 features
the central hall “3”, accounted for the highest level of visibility in the house. On the contrary,
 the visibility access of the private spaces including the bedrooms “5”, “10”, “11”, the kitchen
“4” and bathroom/toilet
Download full-text PDF “7”, “citation
Download 9” ranked the lowest among the spaces in the house. Meanwhile,
Copy link
it worth noting that the different nodes of the house are spatially integrated with the central
hall “3”, making the private rooms which are directly attached to the central hall to be clearly

Figure 16.
Visibility graph 1990s
(a) house

visible from any point inside the house. This condition can be considered as having a poor Residential
wayfinding strategy ideal for maintaining visual privacy of the house. spatial
4.2.5 House plan in 1990s (b). The analysis of visual accessibility of the 1990s (b) house, as
shown in Figure 17, showcases a clear separation of visibility access between the private and
configuration
the public zones as rendered through the blue and red colorations.
The sitting room “4” has the highest level of visibility while the private zones embodying
the bedrooms “6”, “8”, and the bathroom “7” had lower visibility levels. This is a clear
separation in visibility according to the privacy requirements demonstrating good
wayfinding aspect for visual privacy. The high visibility of the public space immediately
attached to the entry provides a clear direction of the house and space functionality.

Figure 17.
Visibility graph 1990s
(b) house
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Figure 18.
Visibility graph
2000s house
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Citations (8) References (47)

... However, despite its unique socio-spatial characteristics, the inward-looking courtyard pattern of
dwellings was discontinued in the 20 th century. Iranian architectural scholars and historians generally
assumed that transition in domestic architecture in Iran occurred because of the reinterpretation of many
social and cultural values within Iranian society 13, 14 . Nevertheless, from a historical perspective,
changes in socio-cultural values and practices are generally much slower than changes in dwellings design
and architecture 15 . ...
... It was the domain where the household would welcome the male guests. On the other hand, "andaruni"
was designed for family members, particularly the females, and female guests 13, 22,24,25,29 .
Nevertheless, not all people could afford constructing multi-courtyard houses to provide gender-
segregated courtyards 12,22,34,35 . ...
... Factors that have been presumed to account for the changes in the spatial form of Persian dwellings
included modernization14,27 , imitation from the Western architectural patterns because of the authorities'
travel to Europe or returning local architects who were sent to Europe to study architecture52,53 , and
political changes 33 . These studies also shared the assumption that these factors, modernization,
westernization, and political changes, paved the way for re-interpretation of many social and cultural
values and lifestyle patterns in Iranian society, leading to transition in domestic architectural
patterns 13, 14 . Nevertheless, these subjective interpretations on the reasons behind the spatial
transformations of dwellings in Iran have been more based on a series of assumptions rather than being
relied on empirical and rigorous testing. ...

Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Dwelling in Persian Architecture: A Critical Review of Components of Culture,

Interrelations, and Layers
Conference Paper Full-text available
Jan 2024
Fatemeh Fallah Tafti · Md Mizanur Rashid · Sanja Rodeš

View Show abstract

... Critics have asserted that configurational studies entail simplifications and generalizations and require
broad contextual knowledge to yield fruitful results [50]. For instance, to examine the impact on the level of
visual privacy in Iranian dwellings, Ravari et al. (2022) conducted a joint analysis of the spatial
arrangement on the level of permeability and wayfinding in part to justify the residential layout [51]. The
discussion of the critiques brought about a more detailed emphasis on the goal regarding the process of a
space structure analysis: Quantitative aspects of the spatial structure of a dwelling need to be organized
and linked to a functional analysis in a way that allows precise conclusions to be drawn about socio-
cultural information. ...
... Critics have asserted that configurational studies entail simplifications and generalizations and require
broad contextual knowledge to yield fruitful results [50]. For instance, to examine the impact on the level of
visual privacy in Iranian dwellings, Ravari et al. (2022) conducted a joint analysis of the spatial
arrangement on the level of permeability and wayfinding in part to justify the residential layout [51] . The
discussion of the critiques brought about a more detailed emphasis on the goal regarding the process of a
space structure analysis: Quantitative aspects of the spatial structure of a dwelling need to be organized
and linked to a functional analysis in a way that allows precise conclusions to be drawn about socio-
cultural information. ...

Exploring a Sustainable Approach to Vernacular Dwelling Spaces with a Multiple Evidence Base Method: A Case
Study of the Bai People’s Courtyard Houses in China
Article Full-text available
 Mar 2022
Download full-text PDF Download citation Copy link
Zhou Li · Jiahui Diao · Shaoming Lu · Jonathan Krauth

View Show abstract

... Among these three types, linear floor plans positively impact wayfinding efficiency due to their strong
sense of direction, enabling movement along the main corridor from one point to another [1]. On the other
hand, circular and grid floor plans negatively impact wayfinding efficiency due to the frequent changes in
direction and resulting ambiguity and confusion during wayfinding [36, 37]. Circular layouts, with their
movement around a central space in a circular path, present moderate wayfinding difficulty [38]. ...

A Systematic Review of Factors Influencing Signage Salience in Indoor Environments

Article Full-text available
Sep 2023
Chuancheng Li · Haixu Guo · Mengya Yin · Qunfeng Ji

View Show abstract

... This issue is particularly important for Tehran in light of its cultural background (Irani, Armstrong, &
Rastegar, 2017) (Figure 2(b)). Iranian culture and religious beliefs accentuate the importance of visual
privacy in architecture (Ravari, Hassan, Nasir, & Taheri, 2022) . This is becoming more concern when the
rapid growth of high-density buildings affects people's environmental quality (Fallah, Khalili, & bin Mohd
Rasdi, 2015). ...

Optimizing urban layouts through computational generative design: density distribution and shape optimization

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