Module- 2 Dr. M. Vinuth M.Sc., PGDHRM, Ph.D.

MATERIALS FOR MEMORY AND DISPLAY SYSTEMS

2. Computer memory

Computer memory, device that is used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions)
on a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer. Computers represent
information in binary code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s. Each binary digit (or “bit”) may be
stored by any physical system that can be in either of two stable states, to represent 0 and 1. Such
a system is called bistable.

This could be an on-off switch, an electrical capacitor that can store or lose a charge, a
magnet with its polarity up or down, or a surface that can have a pit or not.

Memory devices are digital system that store data either temporarily or for a long term.
Digital computers to hard disk have built in memory devices that can store data of user or
manufacturers. The data either be in the form of control programs or programs that boot the system.
Hence, to store such huge amount of data the memory devices must have enormous capacity. The
challenge is to build memory devices that have large capacity but cost effective. The memory
devices must be capable of storing both permanent data and instantaneous data.

In order to achieve greater density of data storage and faster access to information, more
components are deliberately packed onto a single chip. The size of transistors has decreased from
130 nm in the year 2000 to 32 nm at present. Silicon- based semiconductor devices become less
stable below 22 nm reducing their reliability to store and read individual bits of information.
Reduction in size of transistor below certain level increases power consumption and results in
unwanted heat generation.

Phase change memory (PCM), and Organic/polymer memory devices have shown the
potential to be the new data storage technologies. Among them organic/polymer memory devices
have evinced more interest due to their advantageous properties.

The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory devices are:

a) They can be processed easily.
b) Structure of the molecule used can be designed through chemical synthesis,
c) Device structure is very simple.
d) Dimension of the device can be decreased (miniaturized)
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e) Cost of production is less.

f) Power consumption during operation is low.
g) They exhibit multiple state properties.
h) 3D stacking capability and
i) Data storage capacity can increased to very large value.

2.1 Basic concepts of electronic memory

An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response

and compact in size, and can be read and written when coupled with a central processing unit
(CPU, a processor).

For a material to show memory effect, the main essential requirements are:

1) The individual memory cells, must possess at least two stable states. In silicon- based electronic
memory devices used today, data are stored based on the amount of charge stored in the memory
cells. Memory cells exhibit two charge states which are coded as "O" and "1".

2) These states must be stable for a period appropriate for the data storage.

3) They can be switched between two states by an external stimulus. This is called as the writing
process.

4) The states can be distinguished by applying a further external signal. This called as the reading
process.

New organic/polymeric materials exhibit two electrical stable states known as electrical
bistability. They shift from one state (ON state) to other state (OFF state) when an external electric
field is applied. In these devices, information is stored and retrieved by encoding these two states.
Therefore, these chemical materials store information in the form of change in their properties
under applied electric field. Basic concepts

2.2 History of organic/polymer electronic memory devices

1. During 1968-70, bistable electrical conductivity and resistivity phenomenon was observed in
Pb/polydivinyl benzene, tetracene, phthalocyanines and polystyrene polymer materials. All

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these materials showed bistable switching and memory switching effects. But, the performance
was not satisfactory for practical applications.
2. During same period, controlled polymer chain ordering and disordering with respect to electric
field was discovered in polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, polyethylmethacrylate and
polybutylmethacrylate polymer films.
3. In 1980s, two stable ferroelectric polarization states was discovered in polymers. Thin films of
ferroelectric polymer materials can be repeatedly switched between two stable, and are capable
of exhibiting non-volatile memory effects. But they required very high operating voltage of 30
V.
4. In 1995, ferroelectric polymer films as thin as 1 nm were fabricated. These required just 1 V
to switch between two states. Since, then Polymer ferro-electric random access memory
(FeRAM) was developed as a promising memory technology.
5. In 2001, an organic field- effect transistors (OFETs) memory device was demonstrated using
a sexithiophene oligomer as the conductor and a ferroelectric organic polymer material as gate
insulator.
6. 2003, a WORM type memory device was developed consisting of a thin film p-i-n silicon
diode and a mixture of two conductive polymers, poly (ethylene dioxythiophene and poly
(styrene sulfonic acid).
7. During same time, bistable electrical switching and memory effect was discovered in involving
charge transfer (CT) complexes with an electron donor and an electron acceptor.
8. Cu, Gold, Carbon Nano Tube were used as electron acceptors. 8-hydroxyquinoline (8H@),
tetrathiafulvalene (TTF), polyaniline (PANI), poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT), were used as
electron donors. These were used in several polymer electronic memory devices, including
flash memory, WORM memory and DRAM.
9. In 2004, ultrathin film organic materials were discovered with multilevel conductivity states.
Poly [2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyl-hexyloxy). 1, 4-phenylene vinylene polymer showed one low- and
three high-conducting states. All four accessible states have associated memory effects for
data-storage applications. In order to achieve ultrahigh density memory devices, organic
materials with multilevel stable states are highly desirable.

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10. In 2005, multilevel conductance switching films with a continuum of conductance

states was reported in ITO/MEH-PPV/Al device with poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyl-hexyloxy).
1, 4-phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV) films.
11. Devices demonstrating multi stability where more than two conducting states can be
programmed into a single switching element will dramatically increase the amount of data
stored per area or volume. Further progress in the development of multilevel organic polymer
memory has been made in recent years.
12. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (IRS) has identified
polymer memory as an emerging memory technology since the year 2005.

Memory devices receive and record digital information. They are core components
of computers and electronic systems. Electrical memory devices can be classified
into two categories based on their need of power:

When power is off, volatile memory loses the stored data, while data in non-volatile
memory retains. Non-volatile memory devices can be further classified into four types such as

2.3 Classification of electronic memory devices

1. Transistor type electronic memory device

2. Capacitor type electronic memory device
3. Resistor type electronic memory device
4. Charge transfer type electronic memory device

1. Transistor type electronic memory device

In order to store data in a memory device it must have minimum two distinct electronic
states. These states are assigned as 0 and 1 or OFF and ON respectively. It contains a fine electronic
circuit, including a complementary metal oxide semiconductor transistor and capacitor. In this
electronic circuit 0 and 1 corresponds to the discharges and charged states of the Capacitor
respectively.

Inorganic transistors are widely used in conventional semiconductor memory. Organic

(including polymer) transistors are also of great potential for memory applications.

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2. Capacitor type electronic memory device

Organic and polymeric ferroelectric materials can be used in capacitor- type electronic memory
device. Capacitors have two parallel plate electrodes and charges are stored in these electrodes
under an applied electric field. Bistable states of capacitor is based on the amount of charge stored
in the cell. Data can be stored in these devices based on different charge stored in the cell. Charges
stored in the cell maintain electric polarization that can be switched between two stable states by
an external electric field.

3. Resistor type electronic memory device

It does not require a specific cell structure (e.g. FET) or to be integrated with the CMOS
(complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology. This type of memory device uses
switchable resistive materials to store data. It is based on the change of the electrical resistivity of
materials in response to an applied voltage (electric field). Electrical bistability arises in these
materials due to different electrical resistivity which are assigned ON and OFF states.
Electrical bistability usually arises from changes in the intrinsic properties of materials, such
as charge transfer, phase change, conformation change and reduction–oxidation (redox) reaction,
in response to an applied voltage or electric field.
4. Charge transfer type electronic memory Device

This type of electronic device is based on the charge transfer effects of a charge transfer
complex. A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A)
complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer of
charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of a CT complex is
dependent on the ionic binding (not all cases) between the D–A components.
In CT complex a partial transfer of charges occurs from donor part to the acceptor part.
This results in difference in conductivity. CT complexes exhibit bistable states due to difference
in conductivity. This behaviour used to design molecular electronic devices.
The formation of a conductive CT complex can be employed to design molecular electronic
devices. Many organic CT systems, including organometallic complexes, carbon allotrope
(fullerene, carbon nanotubes and graphene)-based polymer complexes, gold nanoparticle–polymer

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complexes, and single polymers with intra-molecular D–A structures have been explored for
memory applications.
2.4 Classification of electronic memory

Figure 1

The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and accessing binary
digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”, as one of the core functions (primary storage) of modern
computers.
According to the storage type of the device, electronic memory can be divided into two primary
categories:
1. Volatile and
2. Non-volatile memory.
NOTE: Volatile memory eventually loses the stored information unless it is provided with a
constant power supply or refreshed periodically with a pulse. The most widely used form of
primary storage today is volatile memory.
Volatile memory
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores
information based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the
data & information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the
computer. It temporarily stores programs/ data which has to be executed by the processor.
RAM requires the stored information to be periodically read and re-written, or refreshed,
otherwise the data will be lost.

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(a) D RAM (Dynamic random access memory): It is a type of volatile random access memory
that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. It uses capacitors
stores the data as a charge on the capacitors. Since real-world capacitors have charge-leaking
tendencies, the stored data eventually fade unless the device is refreshed periodically. Because
of this periodical refresh requirement, it is a volatile and dynamic memory. This memory is
slower than S RAM.
(b) S RAM (Static random access memory): It is another type of volatile memory. It uses
transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable of retaining their state as long as the
power is applied. This memory consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing
1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is faster. SRAM is faster and more reliable than the
more common DRAM. Due to its high cost, SRAM is often used only as a memory cache.

Non-volatile memory
1. ROM (Read Only Memory) is factory programmable only; data is physically encoded in the
circuit and cannot be programmed after fabrication. It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile
memory stores information even when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped.
ROM is used to store information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-
only memory, we can only read the programs and data that is stored on it. It contains some
electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific information. The information
stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.
ROM is of four types:
(a) MROM (masked read only memory): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection
of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that
works in this way.
(b) PROM (programmable read only memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once by
the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required
contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
(c) EPROM (erasable programmable read only memory): It is an extension to PROM where
you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
(d) WORM (write-once read-many): It is a data storage technology that allows data to be written
to a storage medium a single time and prevents the data from being erased or modified. Storage

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media that support WORM storage are purposely non-rewritable to prevent anyone from
intentionally or accidently erasing or modifying the data after it is initially stored. Because of
this feature, government agencies and enterprises have long used WORM devices for archival
purposes. A WORM memory device can be used to store archival standards, databases and
other massive data where information has to be reliably preserved for a long period of time.
Conventional CD-Rs, DVDRs or programmable read- only-memory (PROM) devices are
examples of WORM memory.
Hybrid memory allows data to be read and re-written at any time.

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory): Here the written contents
can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing
and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms (milliseconds). Any area in an
EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.

Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type of non-volatile memory that erases data in
units called blocks and rewrites data at the byte level. Flash memory is widely used for storage
and data transfer in consumer devices, enterprise systems and industrial applications. Due to its
non-volatility, no power is needed to maintain the information stored in flash memory.

2.5 Types of organic memory materials

There are three classes of materials which can exhibit bistable states and are used in organic
memory devices. They are:

1) Organic molecules.

2) Polymeric materials.

3) Organic- inorganic hybrid materials.

1. Organic molecules

There are different category of organic molecules which show bistable or multi stable states
when external field is applied. When a threshold voltage is applied they undergo a transition from
the OFF state to the ON state, or from the ON state to the OFF state. Few of them are mentioned
here.

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Acene derivatives: These are the polycyclic aromatic compounds consisting of linearly fused
benzene rings. These are the very first discovered organic memory devices because of their high
charge carrier mobility. E.g.: acenes are pentacene, perfluoropentacene, naphthalene, anthracene,
tetracene.

The most important member of the acene family is pentacene. It is a linearly-fused aromatic
compound with five benzene rings. It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form. Both forms
exhibits a very good hole mobility and hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.

When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced by fluorine atoms the resulting molecules
is perfluoropentacene. Strongly electron withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms converts this
molecule in to -type semiconductor.

Pentacene and Perfluoropentacene, both have similar structure and similar crystal packing but
former behaves as p-type semiconductor and latter behaves as an n-type semiconductor. Therefore,
these molecules together exhibit charge-transfer processes that are useful for memory applications.

2. POLYMER MOLECULES

There are five classes of polymers which exhibit memory effect and are used in electronic memory
devices.

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(a) Functional polyimides (PIs): These are one of the most commonly used polymeric materials
for organic electrical memory applications. They have high thermal stability and mechanical
strength and can be easily processed from solution. In functional PIs, phthalimide acts as the
electron acceptor, and triphenylamine acts as an electron donor to form a Donor-Acceptor
structure. They exhibit two stable charge states under applied electric field. These states arise
due to transfer of electrons from donor to acceptor. This bistability is used to store data in
memory device.

Phthalamide Triphenylamine

(b) Conjugated Polymers

Conjugated polymers are rich in pi electrons and they can be made to show charge states
by incorporating electron acceptor groups in their back bone. This induced charge transfer channel
determines volatility of the memory device. D-A type conjugated polymers are used to fabricate
different types of memory device, such as volatile DRAM and SRAM devices, and non-volatile
WORM and Flash devices.

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(c ) Polymers with fullerenes/graphene and metal complexes

Fullerenes, graphene and their derivatives have good optoelectronic properties. The
polymer containing carbazole group is combined with fullerene serves as the electron donor and
C60 serves as the electron acceptor species. The fabricated ITO/Polymer-C60/Al device exhibited
non-volatile rewritable memory behaviour.

Transition-metal complexes exhibits reversible redox properties. When these are

introduced into polymer backbones, the can improve the stability of conductive states. Ferrocene
(Fe) is the commonly used metal complex. It exhibits non-volatile memory when introduced in to
polymer.

3. Organic-inorganic hybrid materials

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing inorganic materials.
There are two types such as

(a) Organic-carbon allotrope hybrid materials: Polymers containing electron donors, such as
thiophene, fluorene, carbazole and aniline derivatives can be combined with Fullerenes to
obtain a charge transfer hybrid material with donor-acceptor ability and electrical bistable
states Fullerenes exhibit high electron-withdrawing ability, and can capture up to six electrons.
They are used in WORM memory effect devices.
(b) Organic-inorganic nano composites: These are the hybrid electronic memory devices in
which organic polymer with appropriate functional group is clubbed with metal nanoparticles,
quantum dots and metal oxide nanoparticles.
An example is a composite of 8-hydroxyquinoline containing polymer with gold
nanoparticle sandwiched between two electrodes. Bistable electronic transition states are
observed when an electric field is applied due to charge transfer between the Au nanoparticles
and 8-hydroxy quinoline.

2.6 DISPLAY SYSTEMS

Display: Display is an output device used to present visual information.

Display System: “a system through which information is conveyed to people through visual
means,”

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2.7 Photoactive and electroactive materials

Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electro
active and photoactive materials. Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are the
semiconductors composed of π electron systems.

Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in the UV to IR region.
Display system (OLED) consisting of photoactive and electroactive material absorb light and
allows an electron to jump from Donor (HOMO) to an Acceptor (LUMO). This phenomenon
generate and transport charge carriers.

Organic materials used in optoelectronic devices are referred to as photo and electro
active organic materials. They are also called as organic semiconductors. When these materials
are used in devices, they exhibit opto-electronic phenomena as:

a) Absorption and emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to near
infrared.
b) Photo generation of charge carriers.
c) Transport of charge carriers.
d) Injection of charge carriers from the electrode.
e) Exhibit excellent nonlinear optical properties

Optoelectronics: Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which

includes the study, design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy
into light and light into energy through semiconductors.

Optoelectronic devices: A hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light into
energy through semiconductors. These are primarily transducers i.e. they can convert one energy
form to another. They can also detect light and transform light signals to electrical signals for
processing by a computer.

2.8 Nanomaterials for optoelectronic device (Silicon Nanocrystals)

Nano materials with electro-optical properties can help in size reduction of future opto-
electronic devices. Graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are carbon based materials
which show good electrical, electronic and optical properties.

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Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100nm is called nanomaterials.

The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:

1. Quantum Confinement effect

2. Increased surface area to volume ratio

The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its
bulk, which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.

Properties of silicon nanocrystals for optoelectronics

a) Silicon nanocrystal has wider bandgap energy due to quantum confinement.

b) SiNCs shows higher light emission property(Photoluminescence)
c) SiNCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.
d) Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure.

Applications

1. SiNCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down-shifting in photovoltaics

2. SiNCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photodetectors and optoelectronic
synaptic devices.

2.9 Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing materials –

Polythiophenes] (P3HT)

Polythiophenes are an important class of conjugated polymers, environmentally and thermally

stable material. Chemical structure of P3HT Poly (3-hexylthiophene) is a polymer with chemical
formula (C10H14S) n. It is a polythiophene with a short alkyl group on each repeat unit. Highly
ordered (P3HT) are composed of closely packed, p–p stacked (p distance of 0.33 nm) fully
extended chains which are oriented perpendicular to the substrate.

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Properties

1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits conductivity due to holes
therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.

2. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) have great capability as light-absorbing materials in organic

electronic devices.

3. P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for
Optoelectronics.

4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.

5. Fundamental band gap of P3HT is 490 nm visible region, corresponding to π -π*transition,

giving electron-hole pair.

6. P3HT indicate that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the degree
of crystallinity.

Applications

1. P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permit the charge carriers to move in opposite direction and
hence, used in photovoltaic devices.
2. It can be used as a positive electrode in lithium batteries.
3. Used in the construction of organic solar cells.
4. Manufacture of smart windows.
5. Used in the fabrication new types of memory devices.

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2.9.2 Light emitting material-Poly[9-vinylcarbazole](PVK)]

Poly(Nvinylcarbazole) (PVK) is one of the highly processable polymers as hole conducting

material and therefore used as an efficient hole transport material to prepare highly efficient and
stable planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells.

Applications

1. PV has been commonly use in OLEDs, light harvesting applications, photo refractive polymer
composites and memory devices
2. Used in the fabrication of light-emitting diodes and laser printers.
3. Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells when combined with TIO on glass substrate.
4. Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with Perovskite materials.
5. PVK-perovskite junction is used in light-emitting diodes with enhanced efficiency and
stability.

2.10 Liquid crystals

The study of liquid crystals began in 1888 when an Austrian botanist named Friedrich
Reinitzer observed that a material known as cholesteryl benzoate had two distinct melting points.
In his experiments, Reinitzer increased the temperature of a solid sample and watched the crystal
change into a hazy liquid. As he increased the temperature further, the material changed again into
a clear, transparent liquid.

Liquid crystal (LC) is an intermediate state between crystal and liquid showing the
properties of both. For example, liquid crystal may flow like a liquid but its molecules may have
a specific crystal-like orientation. A long, rigid, highly anisotropic structure seems to be the main

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criterion for liquid crystalline behavior; to obtain this structure many liquid crystalline materials
are based on benzene rings.

2.10.1 Classification of liquid crystals

The liquid crystals are classified in two major types

1. Thermotropic
2. Lyotropic.

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals

The class of compounds that exhibit liquid crystalline behaviour on variation of
temperature alone are referred to as thermotropic liquid crystals. The temperature
range at which some liquid crystals are stable are given below:

Cholesteryl 145.50C to 178.50C

benzoate

p-azoxyphenetole 1370 C to 1670C

p-azoxyanisole 116°C to 135°C

Anisaldazine 1650C to 180 0C

Thermotropic liquid crystals may be further classified as

a) Nematic liquid crystals

b) Chiral nematic liquid crystals

c) Smectic liquid crystals

a) Nematic liquid crystals: Nematic (Greek nematos = thread like) liquid crystals are formed by
compounds that are optically inactive. The molecules have elongated shape and are approximately
parallel to one another. In this phase the molecules maintain a preferred orientational direction but
positional order is completely absent and they can diffuse throughout the sample. An example of
a nematic liquid crystal is para-azoxyanisole (PAA) which exhibits liquid crystalline behaviour in
the temperature range of 118°C to 135°C.

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b) Chiral (Twisted) nematic phase: Chiral nematic or twisted nematic liquid crystals (TNLC), are
formed from optically active compounds having chiral centres. In chiral nematic phase, the
molecules arrange themselves so as to form a helical structure. The twisted pattern repeats itself
throughout the liquid crystal phase. The most striking feature of cholesteric mesophase is its strong
optical activity and selective light reflection, which are attributed to the twisted structure. The twist
present in chiral nematic liquid crystals make them to exhibit spectacular optical properties.
Cholesteryl benzoate, cholesteryl myristate and cholesteryl formate are some examples of
compounds which exhibit chiral nematic phase.

c) Smectic mesophase: Substances that form smectic phases are soap-like (in Greek, smectos
means soap). In fact, the soft substance that is left at the bottom of a soap dish is a kind of smectic
liquid crystal phase. In smectic mesophase, there is a small amount of orientational order and also
a small amount of positional order. The molecules are arranged in regularly spaced layers
(positional order). Within the layer they tend to point along the director (orientational order).

2. Lyotropic Liquid Crystals

These are usually obtained by mixing the compound in a solvent and increasing the concentration
of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed. Such liquid crystals are called lyotropic liquid
crystals. The formation of lyotropic mesophases is dependent on the concentration of either the
component or the solvent.

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The orientational behaviour of lyotropic crystals is a function of concentration and solvent.

These molecules are amphiphilic in nature and having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends in
their molecules. The hydrophilic end is attracted towards water, whereas the hydrophobic end is
water repellent and attracted towards non-polar solvents.

At low concentrations, these molecules are randomly oriented but as the concentration
increases, the molecules start arranging themselves.

Examples: (i) soap (soap - water mixture) molecules (i) phospholipids which are
biologically important molecules where each cell membrane owes its structure to the liquid
crystalline nature of the phospholipid - water mixture.

Cell membranes and cell walls are examples of lyotropic liquid crystals. Soaps and
detergents form lyotropic crystals when they combine with water.

Properties of liquid crystals

1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference between refractive index
parallel to the director and refractive index perpendicular to the director. These two properties are
important for the electro-optic effects in liquid crystals.

2. The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.

3. Because the molecules are polar, they interact with an electric field, which causes them to
change their orientation slightly.

4. Liquid Crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.

5. Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.

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Module- 2 Dr. M. Vinuth M.Sc., PGDHRM, Ph.D.

6. Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal expansion. (Thermal Imaging).

2.10.2 Applications of liquid crystals

Liquid crystals have a wide range of applications in various fields, including electronics, optics,
displays, sensors, and medicine. Some of the major applications of liquid crystals are:

1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display
of images and text through the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the
crystals
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as temperature
sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as variable optical
attenuators, phase shifters, and tunable filters. These devices are used in optical
communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is
encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells.

2.11 Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s)

Principle and working of the OLED

OLED devices consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and organic layers are
placed between two electrodes. Multiple organic layers are used, in which each layer plays an
intrinsic role. When a voltage is applied to an OLED device through anode and cathode, charge
carriers are injected from the electrodes to the organic layers. Anode injects holes (positive
charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The holes and electrons
are transported to an emission site and recombined. Organic materials in the emission site are
excited by recombination of holes and electrons. When the exited organic material return to its
ground state, then emission occurs.

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Properties of OLED

Some of the key properties of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) include:

1. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for use
in curved or flexible displays.

2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce deep
blacks and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colors.

3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch on and
off quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.

4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image quality is
maintained even when viewed from different angles.

5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not require a backlight like traditional
LCD displays, resulting in lower power consumption

6. Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not require a separate light
source, resulting in a thinner display.

7. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan, as they do not contain a backlight that can degrade
over time, resulting in a longer-lasting display.

Applications

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to their
unique properties, including high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility. Here are
some of the applications of OLED:

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1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and
other electronic devices.

2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.

3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in
wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.

4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays,

interior lighting, and taillights.

5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical
imaging. They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical
procedures and diagnosis.

2.12 Quantum light emitting diodes (QD-LEDS)

Principle of working of the QD-LEDS

The structure of QD-LED is similar to the fundamental design of OLED. But, the
difference is that the light emitting is from the QDs, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe)
nanocrystals.

A QD-LED device consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode and a QD layer
placed between two electrodes. When a voltage is applied to a QD-LED device through anode and
cathode, charge carriers are injected from the electrodes to the QD layer. Anode injects holes
(positive charges) and cathode injects electrons (negative charges) to the system. The holes and
electrons are transported to an emission site and recombined. QD material in the emission site is
excited by recombination of holes and electrons. When the exited QD returns to its ground state,
emitting photons. In QD- LED, for better recombination efficiency, a single layer of QDs in
colloidal form as an emissive layer.

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Properties of QD-LED

1. Accurate and vibrant colors: These are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant
colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color when they are
excited by a light source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: These are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they
do not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: These displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference
between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more detailed and
lifelike images.
4. Long life span: These have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they do
not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or color fading over time.
5. Fast response times: These have fast response times, which means that they can display fast-
moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
6. Flexibility: These can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of flexible
displays that can be bent or curved.

Applications of QD-LED

1. Televisions and displays: These displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors,
smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color
accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
2. Lighting: These can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer energy-efficient and
highly customizable lighting options.
3. Medical imaging: These can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI
machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.

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Module- 2 Dr. M. Vinuth M.Sc., PGDHRM, Ph.D.

4. Virtual and augmented reality: These displays are suitable for use in virtual and augmented
reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colors, which can
enhance the immersive experience.
5. Advertising displays: These displays can be used in advertising displays, such as digital
billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals.

2.13 Light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC)

Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are simple electroluminescent devices
comprising an emissive material containing mobile ions sandwiched between two electrodes. The
operating mechanism of the LEC involves both ionic and electronic transport, distinguishing it
from its more well-known companion, the organic light-emitting diode (OLED).
These are usually composed of two metal electrodes connected by (e.g. sandwiching) an
organic semiconductor containing mobile ions. Aside from the mobile ions, their structure is very
similar to that of an organic light-emitting diode (OLED).
There are two distinct types of LECs, those based on inorganic transition metal complexes
(iTMC) or light emitting polymers (LEP). iTMC devices are often more efficient than their LEP
based counterparts due to the emission mechanism being phosphorescent rather than fluorescent.

Properties: LECs are flexible, stretchable, low-cost devices such as illuminated tags, smart
packaging, flexible signage, and wearable illumination. LECs are easy-to-fabricate. Have simple-
architecture and can use air-stable metals (e.g. Al. Ag and Au) as the cathodes.
Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are the simplest and least expensive thin-film
lighting devices available to date. They consist of a single active layer. They are used, for example,
as electroluminescent inks and stickers.
Applications: These are used in lighting applications, flexible and wearable displays, gas
detection sensors, energy harvesting applications and biomedical applications.

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