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Stormwater Management Planning-MF - Murshed-2012
Stormwater Management Planning-MF - Murshed-2012
Stormwater Management Planning-MF - Murshed-2012
5in b1139-ch11
Chapter 11
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
PLANNING AND DESIGN
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Abstract
Stormwater is water that originates from precipitation events such as rainfall,
snowmelt, and activities such as watering lawns, washing cars, and draining pools.
The main goal of stormwater management is to maintain health of environment
as well as provide opportunities for human uses by extenuating the effect of
urban development. This chapter divided into three main topics: introduction of
stormwater (history, stormwater pollution, and stormwater management), important
of stormwater management, and stormwater design.
405
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1. Introduction to Stormwater
has been introduced. SWMM has undergone major upgrades till then: first in 1975
(version 2), in 1981 (version 3), and 1988 (version 4). The latest version SWMM
edition, version 5, is a complete rewrite and it can be run under Window XP and
Window Vista.
Suspended solids and sediment Construction site, road, land clearance, agriculture
Pesticides and herbicides Yard, farm, and garden care
Bacteria Animal waste
Metals Vehicle engine
Oil and grease Car, leaks, spills, and automotive facilities
Nutrients Fertilizers, yard waste, and dead animals
Heat (increase temperature) Expose to warm season
Garbage Housing area
Source: US EPA.
that, this water also has been used for as a focal point in stimulating downtown areas
and as a source of water supply at certain arid area.
Integrated water management (IWM) is a combination of all aspects including
technical, social, and environmental. This system has able to address many of the
issues affecting the health of catchment area and water supply challenges facing the
modern urban city. Also known as low impact development, IWM has the potential
to improve runoff quality, reduce the risk and impact of flooding, and deliver an
additional water resource to augment potable supply.
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infiltrate process normally takes times depends on ground level and soil type. Once
infiltrated, this water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
Urban development has a significant impact on the hydrologic cycle. It will
decrease infiltration (seepage into the soil) of precipitation and leads to the increase
of stormwater runoff. This is a direct impact of the increase of impervious area that
accompanies urban development. The large amount of water will cause damage to
stream flow and may cause flood at the catchment area. The reduction of water
infiltrate into the ground layer also affects the soil moister replenishment and
groundwater recharge. Soil moisture is important for sustaining vegetation and the
decreasing of groundwater recharge can reduce available water for domestic and
agriculture supplies.
agents. Therefore, any general consideration of development must be deal with the
work of river or stream.
Stormwater manage to prevent any erosion that may prohibit a stream from its
normal function conveying water or sediment. The development of urban area will
increase the amount of water and sediment delivered to the stream. This problem
increases the erosive forces on the stream banks and beds and over time damages the
natural of streams. Shapes of stream change and enlarge and also affect the meander
pattern. Latter, it causes degradation to stream habitat and reduces the number of
plant and aquatic life.
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3. Stormwater Management
because of the amount of snowfall and rainfall every year is unpredictable. There
are a lot of techniques that can be implemented such as covering, vegetated swales,
and detention pond that normally used based on land-based solution. Land-based
system also provide best practice such as underground storage tank, biofilter, and
water quality inlets.
Contribution from land-using planner, engineer, architect, and stakeholder is
must to achieve better planning and implementation. The completion of a stormwater
management plan would provide the basis for political subdivisions, to the extent
allowed by law, to implement stormwater management plans and ordinances and
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provide best management practices that could be adopted by local stakeholders for
stormwater management. The planning process used to develop the regional plan will
be very public, stakeholder-driven process involving public input in every aspect of
the development of the plan. For this process to be successful, public participation is
paramount and every effort will be made to notify all impacted parties, stakeholders,
and the general public of all meetings and provide them the opportunity to provide
input and feedback on elements of the plan as they are being developed. Building
consensus as the plan is developed is critical to produce a plan that can be adopted
and implemented by local governments and stakeholders.
Elements of the planning process include:
location. However, BMPs will fail if improperly located within the treatment design
or not properly maintained.
Low impact development (LID) practice is also one of the most effective planning
BMPs. This planning practice is developed to protect and reduce the impervious
runoff and achieve target condition:
1. Reducing road width: reducing road width reduces the total impervious area
especially in residential area. Infrastructural for road pavement also reduces and
increases the green space area along the road. Trees could be planted and serve
overarching canopy that shades the road and walkway and intercepts rainfall.
2. Reducing building footprints: Building footprints builds in order to create space
for walkway purposes. The number of building increases with the number of
footprints. Thus, high rise building and more slender building should be con-
structed that creating same floor area and with smaller footprints. Additionally,
more natural vegetation can be preserved and more space is available for source
control such as infiltration facilities.
3. Reducing parking standard: Parking standard such as residential driveway and
car parking, commercial parades, and parking lots uses a lot of land area. The
reducing of this land area can reduce the cost of development and allows for more
affordable houses. This strategy also serves to compact communities and creating
available space for public transit route.
4. Limiting the area of surface parking: Elevated parking, underground parking, and
also parking parades in the building can reduce the number of surface parking.
This planning or development will reduce impervious area and directly reduces
stormwater runoff.
5. Increasing natural plants: For any urban development, developer should try to
minimize deforestation and clearing process especially in the hill side devel-
opment. It increases high suspended material during stormwater runoff and
directly pollutes the water quality of stormwater.
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implemented to replicate). Tree, absorbent soil, stream, and wetland help to provide
significant impact on urban development. These natural features not only reduce
construction cost but also act as a soil erosion control. However, these features need
to recognize early in site design in order to integrate into land use decision. A variety
of stormwater management designs have been applied and describe as follows:
3.2.2.2. Wetland
Wetlands are stormwater control structure providing both retention and treatment of
large volume of contaminated stormwater runoff. These treatment systems control
both stormwater quantity and quality. Its natural, physical, biological, and chemical
processes work to remove pollutants. Sedimentation processes remove particulates,
organic matter, and metals, while dissolved metals and nutrients are removed through
biological uptake.
Size of embankment Side slope 2:1 and minimum top width of 2 meter
Flow control Control by a riser and release pipe
Size of riser and barrel to pass 2- or 10-year storm events
3.3.2. Wetlands
3.3.2.1. Description
Wetlands are surface facilities that use natural chemical and biological treatments
to remove contaminants. Also called natural kidney, its live storage can be designed
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for detention during heavy stormwater event. A typical shallow marsh wetland is
shown in Fig. 3. Wetland used for stormwater treatment can be incidenial, natural,
or constructed. Incidental wetlands are created as a result from previous development
or human activity. However, some natural wetlands are not suitable to act as a
stormwater prevention because of some of them connected to groundwater basin.
Two types of construction wetlands have been used successfully for stormwater
treatment: the subsurface flow (SF) constructed wetland and the free water surface
(FWS) constructed wetland. In the FWS wetland, runoff flow through soil-line basin
at shallow depth. The wetlands consist of shallow pool planted with emergent vege-
tation (vegetation that is rooted in the sediment but with leaves at or above the water
surface). In contrast, SF constructed wetland is lined with pre-designed amount of
rock or gravel, through which the runoff is conveyed. The water level in an SF
wetland remains below the top of the rock or gravel bed. However, recently, most of
the construction wetlands focus on FWS system rather than SF because of the cost
for gravel bed too high to achieve peak flow.
There are four basic designs of FWS construction wetlands: shallow marsh,
extended detention, pond wetland system, and pocket wetland. As shown in Fig. 4,
FWS system store runoff in the shallow basin vegetated with wetland plants. The
selection of one design over another depends on various factors, including land
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availability, level and liability of pollutant removal, and size of contributing drainage
area.
The constructions of wetlands in urban areas not only act as flood mitigation but
also help to sustain wildlife and natural environment. Other than acting as stormwater
treatment wetlands possess various other advantages. Table 3 shows other advantages
and disadvantages of construction wetland.
Advantages Disadvantages
substrate for vegetation process. The substrate should be so soft, so that the plants
can be planted easily.
The size for wetlands normally based on stormwater runoff volume, and U.S.
EPA recommended size is 90% of stormwater runoff volume. The calculation for
total treatment volume calculated based on this equation:
Rv = 0.05 + 0.009 (I), (11.1)
where Rv = Stormwater runoff coefficient and I = % (as decimal) site impervi-
ousness.
(1.25)(Rv)(A)
Vt = (43,560), (11.2)
12
where Vt = treatment volume (cubic feet) and A = contributing area (acres).
Sizing criteria vary depends on local authority or state because all of them have
their own method. However, the difference is based on the rainfall event and detention
time to calculate the total volume of runoff. The surface is normally around 2–3%
of wetland area. However, U.S. EPA has come out guidelines as suggestion for
allocating treatment volume as shown in Table 4 for design purposes. The summary
of design criteria for wetland construction also illustrated in Table 5, which is based
on recommendation from U.S. EPA.
Table 4. Guidelines for Allocating Wetland Surface Area and Treatment Volume.
Extended Detention
Target Allocation Shallow Marsh Wetland Pond/Wetland Pocket Wetland
Semi-wet 5 10 5 5
Percentage of treatment volume
Forebay 10 10 0 0
Micropool 10 10 10 0
Deepwater 10 0 60 20
Low marsh 45 20 20 55
High marsh 25 10 10 25
Semi-wet 0 50 0 0
Note: Depth — deepwater: 0.5–2 meters below normal pool level; low marsh: 0.17–1.5 meters
below normal pool level; high marsh: 0.5 feet below normal pool level; and semi-wet: 0–2 feet
above normal pool level (includes extended detention).
Source: U.S. EPA.
high while vegetation is being established (usually for the first three years).
Monitoring during the first year is crucial to the future success of wetland as a
stormwater BMP. Inspection should be conducted at least twice a year and annually
thereafter. The requirements of wetland design maintenance may also include
replacement planting, sediment removal, and possibly plant harvesting. Wetland
design should also include access to facilitate these maintenance activities.
3.3.2.4. Cost
The cost incurred for stormwater wetland design is estimated to be about 25% of the
construction cost. Construction cost for an emergent wetland with a sediment forebay
ranges from $65,000 to $137,500 per hectare. This includes the cost of clearing and
grubbing, erosion and sediment control, excavating, staking, and planting.
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3.3.3. Bioretention
3.3.3.1. Description
Bioretention has been introduced by Prince George’s County, MD in the early 1990s
(U.S. EPA). Bioretention utilizes soils and both woody and herbaceous plants to
remove pollutants from stormwater runoff. This technology convey surface runoff to
treatment area, which consists of a grass buffer strip, sand bed, ponding area, organic
layer or mulch layer, planting soil, and plants. Sand bed used for slow runoff velocity
and distribute water along the ponding area, which consists of surface organic layer
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and underlying soil. As shown in Fig. 5, stormwater runoff will retain at ponding
area and over a period of day infiltrate into underlying soils.
Typically, bioretention treats stormwater from residential, commercial, and
industrial areas and is ideal for median strips, parking lot islands, and swales. Its
basic design is easy to modify to more specific need either for underdrain or com-
bined with curb and gutter to receive stormwater runoff. Some modification designed
in order to prevent complete infiltration by underlying soil. In this case, normally
underlying soils covers with impervious subsoil or marine clay. This modification
work used to achieve the effectiveness of bioretention that can remove 70% of total
phosphorus, 93% of metals, 70% of TKN, 90% of total suspended solids, and 90%
of organic content (Davis et al., 1998).
done on soil absorption capacities and rate, water balance, plant pollutant removal
potential, and maintenance requirements. The specific design criteria and biore-
tention area computation that can be used are depicted in Tables 6 and 7.
Infiltration trenches are often used in place of other best management practice
where limited land is available. It was widely used in warmer condition and it
increases groundwater recharge and base flow in nearby stream. Negative impact
includes the potential for groundwater contamination and a high likelihood of early
failure if not properly maintained.
• Trenchs should be located at least 30.5 m from water supply well and building
foundation.
• Infiltration trenches suitable for drainage area of 2–4 hectares.
• Trenches work best when the upgradient drainage slope less than 5 percent and
downgradient slope not more than 20% to minimize slope failure and seepage.
• Vegetated buffer strip should be established adjacent to the infiltration trench to
capture large sediment particle.
• Required design volume by calculating the volume based on first flush, which is
1.3 cm of runoff from the contributing drainage area.
• Trench depth normally 0.9 m to 3.7 m (commonly used is 2.4 m).
• A minimum drainage time of 6 hours to be provided to ensure satisfactory pollutant
removal in the infiltration trench.
designed to trap particulate pollutants (suspended solids and trace metals), promote
infiltration, and reduce the flow velocity of stormwater runoff. Vegetative covers on
the top of swales are important to provide dust control, reduce erosion potential, trap
sediment, and dissipate the energy of hard rain. A typical design of vegetated swales
is shown in Fig. 7.
Vegetated swales can be used as a drainage system and can replace curbs, gutter,
and storm sewer system. Its implementation on site depends on the area, slope, and
previousness of the contributing watershed as well as the dimension and type of
vegetative covering. This BMP practice is easy to design and very effective when
used in conjunction with other BMPs such as pond, infiltration strip, and wetland.
• Soil requirements: alkaline soil and subsoil, soil infiltration rate greater than
0.2 mm/s.
• Vegetation: fine, close-growing, and water-resistant grass, able to thrive on site
(e.g., reed canary grass, red fescue).
• General channel configuration: a parabolic or trapezoidal with side slopes not
steeper than 1:3 or specific channel slope between 2 and 4 percent (U.S. EPA).
• Flows: swale size based on 6 month frequency and 24 hours storm event, maximum
flow rate at 140 l/s.
• Sizing procedure: total surface area of swale should be one percent of the area
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that drains to the swale, the swale size should treat design flow and to past peak
hydraulic flow.
• Construction: subsurface of the swale must be carefully constructed to avoid
compaction of soil.
3.3.5.4. Cost
Construction of vegetated swale is cheaper than curb, gutter, or underground
stormwater sewer constructions. The cost may vary from $16 to $30 per linear meter
for 4.5 meter wide channel (top width) and annual maintenance cost approximately
$1.90 per linear meter for 0.5 meter deep channel.
the sedimentation basin surface area (As) in square and meter acres shown below:
Note:
References
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11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999b). Stormwater technology fact sheet:
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