Section Two: The Speaking Skill

Section Two: The Speaking Skill

Introduction

One of the essential objectives for most EFL students is to master the speaking skills of the
target language. Therefore, speaking is also deemed a crucial skill among the other learning
English skills that should be mastered by students. Despite its significance, speaking skill seems
to be a neglected skill in English Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms due to the limited sessions,
To overcome this issue, the rapid advancement of the 21st century has brought fabulous
technologies such as the use of podcasts to enhance speaking competency in EFL classrooms.
The present chapter provides an overview related to podcasting and its impact on developing
learner’s speaking competency.

1.2. Speaking Skill

1.2.1. Definition of Speaking

Speaking is synonymous with conversing; it is not merely using words but also expending
effort to produce comprehensive speech to establish a genuine alliance with people, providing a
sense of accomplishment. Chaney (1998) defines this vital medium of communication as "the
process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and nonverbal symbols in a
variety of contexts" (p. 13). In this regard, Rebecca (2006) states that speaking is the first mode in
which children acquire language. It is a part of the daily involvement of most people in language
activities and is the prime motor of language change. Speaking is similar to writing in that it is
characterized as a productive skill. Nunan (2003) asserts that "speaking is a productive skill that
consists of systematic verbal utterances that carry out meaning" (p. 48). Inside the classroom, it is
seen as a fundamentally instrumental act and an interactive process of constructing meaning,
which includes producing, receiving, and processing information. Nilsson (2011) states that
speaking is an essential part of English lessons because when we speak, we ask for attention and
share our thoughts and feelings with others, and teachers need to speak as much as possible.
Speaking, in its broadest sense, is the ability to use a given language appropriately in a
meaningful context.

1.2.2. Components of Speaking

There are four components of the speaking skill to be mastered: vocabulary,

pronunciation, fluency, accuracy, and comprehension. According to Harris (1974), four or five of
these components are recognized in the analysis of the speech process. The students must practice
speaking English regularly to become fluent and accurate, and to achieve fluency, they have to
know the most essential components that affect how well an individual speaks.
1.2.2.1. Vocabulary

Vocabulary constitutes a reservoir of words with diverse meanings tailored for various
purposes; effective communication is unattainable without possessing a sufficient and apt
vocabulary. Therefore, the cultivation of our speaking skills necessitates awareness and command
of the right words to enhance comprehension, as without a robust vocabulary, conveying
meaningful messages becomes challenging. This principle finds support in the assertions of
Richards and Renandya (2002), who affirm that "vocabulary is a fundamental aspect of language
proficiency and forms the basis for the proficiency of learners in speaking, listening, reading, and
writing" (p. 255). The absence of an extensive vocabulary repertoire can indeed limit students
from reaching their full potential.

1.2.2.2. Pronunciation

Another pivotal aspect of effective communication is pronunciation, which refers to the

manner of articulating words clearly, indicating the proficiency with which a particular word is
pronounced. Mastering pronunciation can pose a significant challenge for language learners and
is often a less favored topic for teachers to address in the classroom. Pronunciation becomes
crucial as it ensures that learners can articulate words effectively, even when they possess a
limited vocabulary and understanding of grammar. Moreover, good pronunciation and intonation,
as highlighted by Nation and Newton (2009), contribute to effective communication.
Pronunciation involves individual sounds, incorporating elements such as articulation, aspiration,
voicing, voice setting, intonation, and stress. By honing these aspects, language learners can
enhance their ability to speak fluently and convey their thoughts accurately.

1.2.2.3. Fluency

Attaining speaking fluency stands as a key objective for nearly all language learners,
denoting the proficiency with which students can seamlessly connect their ideas without
deliberate thought, pauses, or interruptions during conversation. Yingjie (2014) elucidates that
fluency involves the ability to speak smoothly at an effective pace, effortlessly producing the
right words without excessive contemplation. Achieving fluency in the English language not only
instills confidence but also lends an individual a sense of prestige and impressiveness on a
broader scale. When instructing on fluency, common activities include role plays, speeches, and
various communicative exercises.

1.2.2.4. Accuracy

Accuracy refers to the absence of mistakes and errors in language usage. Put differently, it
signifies how learners handle language without committing grammatical errors, ensuring the
communication of accurate and understandable messages. According to Nunan (1989), achieving
success in speaking involves the application of appropriate conversational formulas, a strong
ability to articulate phonological features of the language, mastery of stress patterns, and an
acceptable level of fluency. It's essential to note that accuracy is a subjective measure; children
may not attain the same level as adults. In the context of teaching accuracy, educators employ
activities such as grammar presentations and dialogues.

1.2.2.5. Comprehension

Comprehension involves the act of understanding what the speaker conveys to prevent any
potential misunderstandings. It constructs a representation of the meaning of sentences, aiming to
assist the listener in capturing information from the speaker with ease. In Second Language
Acquisition (SLA), comprehension is regarded as a complex task due to its indirect observability;
it needs to be inferred from both verbal and nonverbal responses (Cohen et al., 2005).

1.2.3. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance

To demonstrate his speaking performance assessment tasks, Brown (2004) introduced a

taxonomy of five categories that emerged for oral performance:
1.2.3.1. Imitative

Defined as a phonetic level of oral production in which the speaker is simply able to imitate
(mimic) a word, phrase, or sentence. Brown (2004) indicates that understanding or conveying
meaning in this type does not matter. The emphasis is mainly given to the pronunciation and
some of the lexical, prosodic, and grammatical properties of the language imitated. Imitative
learning does not require significant space of exploration and is considered one of the fastest
communicative learning approaches in practice as it offers students an opportunity to listen and to
orally repeat certain words of the language that may present a linguistic difficulty (Raina et al.,
2019).
1.2.3.2. Intensive
 Intensive speaking involves the production of short stretches of language. In this type, the
speaker needs to be aware of semantic properties to be able to respond in a minimal or short
conversation. Brown (2004) gave examples of intensive assessment tasks which included reading
aloud activities, sentence and dialogue compilations, limited picture-cued tasks, directed
responses tasks, and even translation to simple sentence-level pupils. Most of these oral language
designs aimed to demonstrate competence in a narrowed band of grammatical or phonological
aspects of language where students can practice intonation, stress, rhythm, and juncture.
1.2.3.3. Responsive

This third type of speaking performance is very common in the classroom. Teachers use
responsive speaking techniques when they engage their learners by asking them simple one or
two questions. In the same way, students give replies that are usually sufficient enough and do
not extend into longer dialogues or conversations. Brown (2004) states that assessing responsive
speaking is done through simple content that includes interaction and comprehension tests but at
the somewhat very limited level of a short conversation, for instance, standard greetings, small
talk, and simple requests.
1.2.3.4. Interactive

What distinguishes interactive and responsive speaking is the length and complexity of the
interaction. Interactive speaking is described as a complex performance that can include multiple
exchanges and/or multiple participants. According to Brown (2004), interaction can take two
forms; transactional language or interpersonal exchange. Transactional language is represented in
conversations that have a negotiable nature. The main purpose of this form is to transmit or
exchange specific information, as is common in responsive speaking. Interpersonal exchanges, on
the other hand, serve the purpose of maintaining social relationships; conversations in this form
can be a bit more complex to learners, especially with the use of colloquial language, ellipsis,
slang, humor, or any other sociolinguistic conventions.
1.2.3.5. Extensive (monologue)

It represents the longer forms of monologues. Competency in extensive speaking is usually

measured through extended speeches, oral presentations, summaries, or storytelling. Learners
here mostly use a deliberative and formal language style which requires a great deal of
preparation and is not typically improvisational communication; listeners’ ability to participate is
also highly restricted or excluded altogether.
1.2.4. The Relationship between Speaking and Listening

For the past three decades, there have been a large number of studies conducted to
examine the relationship between speaking and listening. Despite being an important
communication skill in both daily life and academic contexts, listening has notably received
insufficient attention within the language teaching curriculum compared to the other three main
skills (Ramadhani et al., 2022). This emphasis is driven by the recognition that listening as a skill
may be easy to miss because of its silent nature. However, this perspective changed radically
once listening came back to the spotlight when several language acquisition theories
emphasized its importance and how it functions as a predictor of oral performance.

While speaking is regarded as a structured and reactive product of one’s thoughts,

expressions, and ideas (Brown, 1994), listening on the other hand, is viewed as a process of
interpreting and analyzing meaning. Underwood (1989) defines listening as “an activity of paying
attention to and trying to get meaning from something we hear”. Listening is the language skill
most used in education; it is the channel by which students get their language exposure and input.
In this manner, effective communication can Message
be acquired as represented by the depiction below:
Sender Reciever
Channel

Fig 3: The sender-message-receiver-model by David Berlo (1960)

The sender-message-channel-receiver (SMCR) model of communication is the simplest form of

linear communication that we're exposed to today. It explicitly showcases the process of
communication and the interplay between speaking and listening.

Kang (2002) notes that the concept of listening comprehension became thoroughly
accepted in foreign language teachings due to the significant role it plays in the development of
speaking ability. Similarly, Cross (1992) states that most language learners are set to acquire
pronunciation, syntax, vocabulary, and even fluency when they practice active listening.
Furthermore, speaking is not merely an individual action, Nation and Newton (2009) state that
the early stages of language development in any person’s first, second, or foreign language
learning highly depends on listening as it functions as a natural precursor to speaking.

1.2.5. Speaking and Language Teaching Approaches

Language teaching approaches and methods have cast a huge light on the language
teaching theory and the practice of speaking. These are some of the most popular language
teaching approaches that highly emphasize the importance of oral performance in language
learning:
1.2.5.1. The Direct Method

The Direct Method (DM), also known as the ‘oral’ or ‘natural’ method, originated during
the beginning of the 20 century. The DM principally came as an alternative to the poor success
th

of the Grammatical Translation Method (GTM). This pedagogical approach is solely designed to
promote and prioritize the complete use of the target language in the classroom, where teachers
mainly use visual aids to demonstrate peculiar words, sentences, or concepts to students.
This language teaching approach deliberately prioritizes speaking and listening abilities,
and it also views language learning as a route to effective communication. By focusing on real-
life situations, the direct method highly encourages students to talk and interact within the
classroom, and it also aims to help learners in acquiring authentic fluency, and oral
communication. Other aspects of speaking such as vocabulary and grammar are not explicitly
taught in the DM but rather introduced along the way through exercises and materials.
1.2.5.2. The Audio-lingual Method

The Audio-lingual Method (ALM) is also a known method of teaching foreign languages.
It was widely used in the 1950s and the 1960s, and it emerged through the combination of
fragments that were originally found in the Direct Method. This approach highly emphasizes the
understanding of words rather than focusing on the acquisition patterns and structures in common
everyday dialogues.
When it comes to the development of English skills, the ALM focuses on the teaching of
speaking and listening before reading and writing (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). It uses dialogues
as the essential form of language presentation, and drilling as the main training technique.
Learners are usually exposed to several complex language grammatical structures which they
listen to and respond to. Sentence structures in this method were inclusively taught through
imitation and repetition, while vocabulary was demonstrated with much emphasis on correct
pronunciation, speech, and application. Harmer (2004) states that the main purpose of audio-
lingual teaching was to encourage students to create habits of language formation through
constant repetition of correct utterances.
1.2.5.3. The Communicative Language Teaching (Communicative Approach)

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative

Approach, is one of the various methods of language teaching in a second or foreign language
context. The early research in CLT emerged during the 1970s and became popular due to its new
teaching perspective. As the main dominant approach in most modern mainstream language
education, the communicative approach mainly focuses on the learner’s ability to communicate
the message in terms of its meaning rather than concentrating exclusively on the grammatical
perfection of phonetics. CLT views language learning as an interactive, cooperative, and learner-
centered process in which learners are provided with sets of interactive and engaging activities
that help them enhance their communicative competencies.
Achieving good communication is also a crucial aspect of CLT. This approach
significantly concentrates on students’ ability to communicate in real-life situations rather than
just acquiring grammatical knowledge. CLT also emphasizes the importance of building
students’ communication skills using meaningful tasks that can help them become better speakers
in a wide range of contexts. Some of the most common types of Communicative Language
Teaching activities include:
 Role-plays – Learners here simulate real-life situations by taking on specific roles related
to a given scenario.
 Information gap activities – In these tasks, information is divided through the classroom
and students are acquired to work in pairs or groups where they communicate and share
information to complete the task.
 Debates and discussions – These tasks help students engage in conversations where they
express, defend, and challenge each other’s opinions.
 Problem-solving tasks – These activities involve collaborative work among learners, and
it is built on exchanging information as well as using language profoundly.
 Project-based activities – In these activities, students have the choice to work in groups or
individually to plan and create products such as presentations, monologues, or even
videos.
1.2.7. Speaking Skill Difficulties and Challenges

Despite its importance in EFL classrooms, speaking skill still poses a great challenge for
most students. To investigate EFL learners’ common difficulties in speaking English, Aisha
(2020) distinguished two main categories; the linguistic factors and the psychological factors.
1.2.7.1. Linguistic Factors

Researchers have long sought to understand the influence of linguistic aspects on the
development of oral performance. In a study to determine students’ strategies for overcoming
speaking challenges, Lukitasari (2008) found that most learners, who had difficulties in
improving their oral performance mainly complained about three linguistic elements, namely lack
of vocabulary, grammar mistakes, and pronunciation problems. Each of these factors is an
individual element and can be previewed as follows:

a. Grammar Mistakes
Grammar holds a huge significance in language performance, Paramudhita (2015) indicates that
one of the major difficulties that students face during speaking is mainly connected to their lack
of understanding of grammatical patterns. Due to its complex formation, grammar is a difficult
subject for the majority of language learners. Aspects such as tenses, word order, and sentence
fragments can be difficult to obtain in EFL classrooms. When students fail to acquire such
elements, grammar becomes extremely challenging and makes most foreign languages avoid
speaking or participating in the classroom due to the fear of making grammatical errors or
mistakes (Pears, 2002).
b. Lack of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is also a huge part of the learning process and the lack of it can threaten learners’
ability to comprehend spoken or written language. According to August et al. (2005), foreign
language learners with lower vocabulary ranges tend to take longer time to acquire new
vocabulary and are less engaged in oral activities with their classmates or their teachers. Most
EFL learners often find learning and retaining new words in a foreign language quite difficult,
this limits their ability to select appropriate words or even come up with simple sentences.
Moreover, the English language poses many idioms, phrasal verbs, and slang terms, which are
not always easy to comprehend for non-native speakers. Thornbury (2004) also identified some
factors that influenced students’ inability to grasp new words, they included; pronunciation,
spelling, length and complexity, and even grammar and meaning.
c. Pronunciation Problems
Pronunciation plays a key role and is a vital element in English language teaching. Failure to
adopt good pronunciation may cause students obstacles in communicating. Pronunciation
problems among EFL learners are mainly connected to phonology and the wrong use of stress in
the syllabus. Poor pronunciation can also affect the utterance and meaning of sentences.
Researchers highlighted some of the main pronunciation problems that most EFL learners find
during their learning which included factors such as stress, phonological fragments, long words,
and words that have silent consonants.
1. Psychological Factors
Several studies examined the role of psychological elements in the success and failure of
students’ speaking performance. According to Brown (2001), several psychological factors are
considered to be the main root cause of learners’ antipathetic to speaking:
a. Anxiety
One of the most common learning challenges in foreign language teaching is the concept of
anxiety. Titis (2021) defines anxiety as a feeling of tension, nervousness, and apprehension that is
specifically associated with the context of language learning. Bashir et al. (2011) assert that
extreme anxiety may lead to despondence and a sense of failure in learners. Students with anxiety
disorders have higher risks of lower academic scores and can have difficulty paying attention to
what needs to be learned. According to Koçak (2010), students can become highly stressed and
anxious in unfriendly learning environments; this causes them to detach themselves from class
activities and prevents them from developing their communicative skills. Furthermore, speaking
anxiety often has other aspects such as peer pressure and self-image. Al Ansari (2015) carried out
a study to examine the causes of anxiety in the classroom and the research findings declared that
most learners believe that making mistakes in the classroom affects their “image” and could lead
to losing face. Similarly, Ariyanthi (2016) declares that students are mainly reluctant to speak in
the classroom due to fear of judgment from their peers and teachers.
 b. Shyness
Shyness is also counted as a major obstacle in English language learning. Rubin et al. (2009)
view shyness as a temperament or personality trait that is partially characterized by learners’
differences. Shy students are more likely to have internalizing issues that make them highly
uncomfortable with public speaking. Many researchers suggest that shy students often have more
speaking problems than their non-shy counterparts. Asendorpt (2000) notes that students who
experience overwhelming levels of shyness have a difficult time adjusting to new environments,
which exposes them to negative emotional outbursts. This could also cause them problems with
adapting to new learning techniques and can make them underperform academically. While it is
necessary to address that not all learners suffer from overwhelming shyness, this psychological
factor is still a common obstacle in most EFL classrooms.
c. Lack of Confidence
Contrary to popular belief, confidence is not something learners are born with, but rather a skill
they need to master. Chen (2010) indicates that the main reason why students avoid taking risks
in public speaking is due to their lack of confidence. Learners who display low self-esteem often
dodge participating in class discussions; this can sometimes result in poor oral performance, and
can also influence their academic achievement. Most learners’ willingness to communicate in
class is partially determined by their self-confidence (MacIntyre et al., 1998) and the lack of it
might exhibit various negative psychological outcomes, such as stress, burnout, and even
depression. Confidence problems may also originate from the classroom environment. Brown
(2001) states that a lack of encouragement from teachers can result in lower self-esteem and more
speaking obstacles. The teachers must provide and maintain healthy environments where students
can express themselves comfortably.
d. Fear of Making Mistakes
Fear of making mistakes is another issue that prevents students from developing their speaking
skills. According to Hammad and Abu-Ghali (2015), EFL students are mainly afraid of making
mistakes due to fear of judgment from their peers. They tend to put off or avoid any activity that
has the potential for an unsuccessful outcome. Ur (2000) exhibits a similar point, saying
“Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom,
worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention
that their speech attracts”. Students need to have an environment where they have no
consequences for trying.
2. External Factors
These are factors that mainly come from outside the individual. Brown (2007) defines
external factors as a common attribute that is solely based on the circumstances outside of the
control and influence of the learner. Such factors are presented in:
1. Lack of Motivation
While many researchers consider motivation a psychological aspect of learning, it is best to
consider it an external factor due to its broad potential. Motivation plays a critical role in the
success of students in any educational context and it comes in two forms, intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is when students engage in activities because they find them rewarding.
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is when learners are motivated to perform or engage in
an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. The second type is primarily related to class
and curriculum structure where the teacher plays a key role. Littlewood (1981) asserts that
progress in speaking practices can only take place if learners are motivated enough. Sunnarborg
(2002) also states that students’ positive behaviors are vital to boost motivation. Without positive
attitudes, learners will not have any substantial improvement in acquiring the different features of
speaking skills. Lack of motivation can also cause dissatisfaction among learners, making them
lose interest in course material, and perceive their learning environment as less supportive.
b. Large Class Sizes
Teaching larger class sizes poses many challenges to teachers and students alike. Large
enrolment numbers within the classroom can promote student disengagement as well as the
feeling of alienation. This can erode learners’ sense of responsibility and can also overstimulate
their desire to engage in oral dialogues. When it comes to class activities, Zhang (2009)
suggested that low or uneven participation can be a major problem in a speaking course. Chen
and Goh (2011) also showcased how large class sizes can limit the number of times learners
participate in activities. Large class sizes can decrease the effectiveness of speaking practices and
can also make it challenging for students and instructors to communicate.
1.2.6. The Importance of Speaking Skills in EFL Teaching & Learning

The primary objective of foreign language learners in mastering English is to achieve

successful and spontaneous conversations, considering it a top priority among other language
skills. Their proficiency in the target language is measured by the improvement in their spoken
language abilities. In the EFL teaching process, oral skills often receive inadequate attention due
to their perceived difficulty, tedium, and the time required for competency development.

Luoma (2004) notes that teaching speaking poses challenges for EFL teachers owing to its
intricate and demanding nature. Celce Murcia (2001) underscores the significance of spoken
language, stating that "the ability to speak language is synonymous with knowing that language
since speech is the most basic means of human communication" (p. 103). Consequently, students
who possess proficiency in spoken language are considered to truly know the language. For
instance, when inquiring about language skills, one would ask, "Do you speak English?" rather
than "Do you write English?" Given the status of English as a universal language and a lingua
franca, many departments and offices seek individuals with excellent English speaking skills to
facilitate seamless communication. Being a proficient speaker not only distinguishes you from
others but also positions you as a valuable asset within your company, providing a competitive
edge over your peers.
1.2.6.1. The Importance of Speaking Skills in Teaching EFL

In teaching speaking teachers have to play several roles, design and think about the
activities to encourage learners to speak and express themselves and achieve their goals, also
teachers think about how to create a comfortable environment and ask the students which types of
activities they prefer to use in their classroom as discussion, debate, role play… as facilitators,
instructors navigate students through speaking activities, drawing guidance from Brown's
foundational work on language learning and teaching (2007), providing clear instructions and
constructive feedback.

Embodying the motivational role, teachers ignite engagement through enticing prompts and
relevant topics, aligning with the principles advocated by Harmer in "The Practice of English
Language Teaching" (2007). Functioning as designers, educators craft diverse activities such as
debates, discussions, role plays, and presentations, tailored to accommodate various learning
preferences.

Concurrently, they serve as environment creators, cultivating a comfortable and inclusive

atmosphere in line with Harmer's recommendations. By scrutinizing learners' needs, instructors
customize activities, ensuring relevance and engagement, echoing insights from Nation and
Newton's work on teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking (2009). Serving as resource
providers, educators integrate authentic materials like videos and articles, enriching students'
exposure to diverse language contexts. In assessing speaking proficiency through rubrics and peer
evaluations, instructors, guided by these seminal works, furnish specific feedback for continuous
improvement.

1.2.6.2. The Importance of Speaking Skills in Learning EFL

The significance of speaking skills has been crucial throughout the history of learning
foreign languages (Nazara, 2011). Recently, speaking skills have gained higher prominence due
to various reasons, particularly as it has evolved into the language of international
communication. Proficiency in speaking holds the promise of a bright future for individuals with
excellent command over this skill, opening up job opportunities in foreign countries where
effective communication is highly valued. Richards and Renandya (2002) assert that the majority
of non-native learners prioritize learning English to attain proficiency in speaking skills.
 Given the importance of English in the current scenario, there is a pressing need to
introduce effective learning materials and employ the best teaching techniques, activities, and
strategies to enhance the speaking skills of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners.
Creating an environment conducive to the development of speaking skills is essential to meet this
demand. Despite several studies aiming to improve the speaking skills of EFL learners,
challenges persist, with many finding it daunting to communicate effectively in English. Hinkel
(2011) argues that gaining command over speaking skills is a challenging task, highlighting the
need for significant research from the perspective of students, and for teachers to be aware of the
skill's importance and provide proper guidance to learners. English, as an international language,
is pursued by all EFL learners, and they strive to acquire knowledge in all four basic language
skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. As depicted in Figure 4, these skills are integral
to obtaining proficiency in English.

Fig.4: Four skills to acquire the knowledge of English Language