CE-421: Design of Steel Structures

Design of Tension Members

 Tension Members
• How Tension members are Analysed/ Designed?
✓Using the Maximum Internal forces & Material
Tensile strengths a suitable cross sectional area
is Selected which Satisfies Adequacy Req.
✓Designed Tensile Strength of a Tension Member
is the Maximum Tension allowed on that Member
according to the Design CODE (AISC etc.)

• But the Tensile Strength depends upon the

Failure Modes of the Tension member.
 Tension Members
➢ How Tension Members can fail?

▪ Either in a Ductile or Brittle failure mode.

• Ductile failure is related to Yielding – large
deformation & necking and it usually occurs away
from Connections and It involves Gross Cross-section
Area
• Brittle Failure usually occurs without significant
deformation and it usually occurs Away from
Connections and It involves Net Cross-section Area
 Tension Members
Gross & Net Cross-Sectional Areas :
The Net X-Sectional Area is Obtained by Deducting the
Material that has been cut to make the hole for the bolts
Section A Shows Gross-section while Section B Shows
Net Cross-section

Sec-A Sec-B
(Gross-section) (Net-section)
A B
 About The Course

Now Try to Develop The Tensile Capacity

Equation of tension Members on the basis of
Their Failure Modes
 Tension Members
Prediction of Failure Load ‘P’ in the Two Failure Modes

Yielding Pn = Stress x Area

Fracture Pn = Stress x Area

where is the effective net area, which may be equal to

either the net area or, in some cases, a smaller area.
 Tension Members
LRFD Design Approach for Tension Members:
The factored tensile load is compared to the design
strength. The design strength is the resistance factor times
the nominal strength.

For tension members, this can be written as

Where Pu is the governing Tension from Loads. The

resistance factor Φt is as follows:
For Yielding
For Fracture
 Tension Members
LRFD Design Approach (Summary):
➢ As there are two limit states, both of the following
conditions must be satisfied.

➢ The smaller of the Above two Strengths is the

Actual Design Strength of the Tension Member.
 Most Commonly Used Steel Grades

➢ Properties of Most Commonly Used Steels

 Tension Members
• Any X-sec Shape Can be selected for a Tension
Member, because the Strength of a Tension Member
Depends mainly upon the X-sec Area.
• Circular rods, Angle Iron and Other X-sec shapes
are commonly used as a Tension Member.
• Built-up X-sec sections (formed by joining more
than one section) can also be used when loads are
high, the most common being double angles.
 Tension Members

C Channel Angle Iron Structural Tee Pipe / Tube Section

Hot Rolled
Built-up
 Tension Members
Some Practical Aspects in Connecting Steel
Members :
➢ We Require Net Area in Fracture Failure. How The Net
Area be Calculated ?
➢ Need Subtraction of Regions of Holes cut in Steel
Members for Connecting Bolts, from the Gross
sectional Area of the Member
➢ What Do You Think, The size of
Area Required for Bolt Holes?
Gross Net
 About The Course
Can You Guesss About The Area or Dia. of
Hole You Cut for the Bolts ?

Will that be EQUAL to the Dia. /Area of Bolt ?

You Might Need to Make the Cut More Bigger

Than the Bolt Required ! …. More Area Reduc.

The Holes are 1/8” Larger than the Bolts

Larger Area to be Subb. From Gross A !

 Tension Members
Some Practical Aspects in Connecting Steel
Members :
➢ The Holes cut in Steel Members for Connecting Bolts,
the Diameter of Hole Should be at Least 1/8” Greater
than the Diameter of Bolt in order to Facilitate Fixing
at Site

1/16” Gap All

Sides

Hole
Bolt
 Tension Members
Example 1
 Tension Members

What Do You Think …..

Think from Where the Plate is Likely to be

Deformed by a Huge Amount ? … Yielding

Think From Where the Plate is Likely to be

Failed Such That Fracture May Occur?
 Tension Members
Example 1

Section

Rupture is Expected Within Connection

Yielding is Expected Away from Connection
Resulted in Large Deformations
 Tension Members
➢ Yielding Failure Strength

➢ Yielding Failure Strength

 Tension Members
➢ Fracture Failure, Strength
➢ Smallest Net Area is Required

➢ SUMMARY

5“
➢ Actual Strength = Smallest of Two = 76.1 kips
 Tension Members
Example 2
 Tension Members
Check the Adequacy of Given section
Can it Bear the Given Load….

Check the Tensile Strength of the Member

Corresponding to the Two Failure Modes …
Yielding & Fracture

Compare the Smallest Strength of the Two

Modes with the Applied Tension (Tu)
 Tension Members
Yielding Failure Strength

Fracture Failure Strength

 Tension Members
Design Strength
➢ Corresponds to Yielding

➢ Corresponds to Fracture

Actual Design Strength is Smallest of

Yielding & Fracture
Tension Members
Checking Adequacy
 Tension Members
FURTHER COMPLICATIONS IN
PREDICTING TENSILE CAPACITY
or TENSILE STRENGTH OF
TENSION MEMBERS !
IN SOME CASES FAILURE
OCCRS AT LESSER LOADS THAN
THE PREDICTED CAPACITY OF
TENSILE MEMBERS USING
PREVIOUS EQUATIONS !
 Tension Members
Yielding Failure & Fracture Failure
➢ In Gross-section Yielding Failure it is assumed that value
of Stress is Fy in Whole Gross-section

Gross-section Yielding Failure Net-section Fracture Failure

➢ In Net-section Failure it is assumed that value of Stress is

Fu in Whole Net-section
But In Some Cases This is Not Practically Occurring !
 Tension Members
IT WAS THEN FOUND THAT IN
SOME SITUATIONS THE
STRESSES ARE PASSING
THROUGH LESSER PORTION OF
THE CROSS-SECTION EVEN
LESSER THEN THE NET CROSS-
SECTIONAL AREA !
 Tension Members
Difference Between Net Cross-sectional
Area & Effective Cross-sectional Area

Gross-section Net-section

Effective Cross-sectional Area Physically Looks Like

Same as the Net Cross-sectional Area !
But Within the Effective Cross-sectional Area Sometimes
Stresses are Flowing in Some Part of the Net Area !
 Tension Members
Factors Effecting the Efficiency of
Tension Members :
➢ There Exists Some Factors that Reduces the
Predicted Tensile Strength of a Tension
Member.

➢ One of these Occurrs at the Connections when

The Tension Member is Connected Partially
to The Connection
 Tension Members
Elements of Cross-section

➢ FLANGES and WEBS in Cross-section are the

ELEMENTS of CROSS SECTION
Elements of X-section

Flanges & webs are

Elements of X-section
 Tension Members
Difference between Completely OR Partially
Connected Tension Members:

➢ When All the Elements of Cross-section of a Tension

Member are Connected to the Connection through
Bolts / Welds, the Tension Members is said to be
Completely Connected to the Connection.
Flanges & webs of X-section
 Tension Members
Elements of Cross-section

➢ Note in the Next Slide that All FLANGES and

WEBS of a Cross-section are Connected to the
Connection
 Tension Members
Completely Connected Tension Members:

All Flanges & Webs

are Connected to
the Connection
 Tension Members
Partially Connected Elements of
Cross-section

Note in the Next Slide that All FLANGES and

WEBS of a Cross-section are Not Connected to
the Connection
 Tension Members
Partially Connected Tension Members:

Connected
Webs

Un-Connected
Elements

Un-Connected Elements or
Portions of X-section Will Be
Less Stressed At Connection
than the Connected Legs
 Tension Members
Impact of Partial Connection of Tension
members to the Connections:

➢ Results in Improper Stress Distribution in the

Member Right at the Connection.

➢ Cause Some Portion of Cross-section Stress

Free While Some Portion Highly Stressed
➢ This is Called Shear Lag in the Tension
Member
 Stresses Lagging in the Cross-section
➢ Angle Iron Connected with One Leg Only

This Portion of
Section is Not Bolted
to Connection, So it is
Not Taking Any Stress
! (Stress-free) Stresses Inside
➢ C Channel with Two Flanges Connected, but Not Web

The Web is Not Bolted

to Connection So it is
Taking Less Stress !
 Stresses Lagging in the Cross-section
➢When some Parts / Elements of the cross section
are not connected to connection then the Whole
Cross-section will not be Stressed at that
Connection. This Phenomena is called Shear lag
Effect.
➢This Effect is function of the ductility of the
material, fastener spacing, stress concentrations at
holes and fabrication procedure.
➢This Phenomena At Lease Shows that A PORTION
OF NET SECTION IS ACTIVE IN TAKING
STRESSES & Not the Whole Section is !
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area

➢ These examples show that if a X-section is Cut within

the Shear Lag Affected Region then it is Obvious that
Some Portions of the Physical Cut Section Will Not Be
Carrying Stresses !! As Highlighted Before & Above.
➢ Therefore The Net Section Capacity Must Be Further
Reduced Because A Lesser Area in Taking Stresses !!
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢For example, when only one leg of an angle is
bolted to a gusset plate. The Leg or Element of
Section Which is Not
WHOLE X-Section is Connected through Bolts
NOT EQUALLY will be Lightly Stressed
STRESSED !

It is SHAER LAG
Effect

The Leg or Element of Section Which is Connected

through Bolts will be Highly Stressed
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ You can Experience it by Pulling an Angled shaped
Member but Picking it Only from its One Leg

➢Therefore Whole Cross-sectional Area is Not

Taking the Stresses, What Area to be Used in the
Formula for Fracture Strength ?
Φ Pn = Φ An Fu

➢Area Less Than Physical Net Area is Actually

Stressed so a Lesser Area is to be Used Here
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Shear Lag Effect is Mainly Expected within
Connections.
➢ Impact of Shear Lag Effect can be incorporated in
Design by Applying a Reduction Factor “U” to the Net
Area (An) resembling the reality that Whole Physical
Net Cross-section is Not Taking the Stress.

➢ An is Not the Actual

Area That is Carrying
Stresses
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢This Brings the Concept of Effective Net Area
(Ae) Rather Net Area (An)

A e = U An

➢‘U’ is the SHAER LAG Factor

➢ ‘U’ is Applied when All the Elements of Cross-

section Are NOT Connected to the Connection

➢‘U’ is Provided by the AISC Code U≤ 1

& it is Always
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Any type of Tension Member, Except Plates & Round
HSS with Length Lesser Or Equal to 1.3 of Diameter:

= Distance From the Centroid of Tension Member to

the Nearest Plane / Surface of Connection
= Length of Connection. Distance between Start and
End of Connector in the Direction of Tension Force
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of

➢ Centre to Centre – From First Bolt to Last Bolt

Along the Direction of Tension Force
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of

➢ Longest Length of Weld Along the Direction of Force

 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
• Shear lag affects both Bolted and Welded connections.
• The effective net area concept applies to both types of
connections.
• For bolted connections, the effective net area is

• For welded connections, the effective area is

The reduction factor U is given in AISC D3.3, Table D3.1

Shear Lag
Factor
“AISC”
Shear Lag Factor AISC Table D 3.1