Unit 4

SNJB Unit 4
Programmable Logical Controllers (PLC)
Before PLCs came into existence; sequencing, safety interlock logic for manufacturing, and
other controls were accomplished using physical relays, timers, and dedicated closed-loop
controllers.
A relay is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch. When a voltage is
applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates a magnetic field to control a switch.
When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates a magnetic field. The
magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the contacts touch, closing the
switch. The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called Normally Open (NO). The
Normally closed (NC) close when the input coil is not energized and open when the input coil
is energized. But the control industries were looking forward to eliminate the high costs
associated with inflexible, relay controlled systems. The specifications required a solid-state
system with computer flexibility which must be able to
1. Survive in an industrial environment,

2. Be easily programmed and maintained by plant engineers and technicians, and
3. Be reusable.
Such a control system would reduce machine downtime and provide expandability for the
future. Some of the initial specifications included the following:-
• The new control system had to be price competitive with the use of relay systems.
• The system had to be capable of an industrial environment.
• The input and output interfaces had to be easily replaceable.
• The controller had to be designed in modular form, so that subassemblies could be
removed easily for replacement or repair.
• The control system needed the capability to pass data collection to a central system.The
system had to be reusable.
• The method used to program the controller had to be simple, so that it could be easily
understood by plant personnel.
The first programmable controllers: By 1969 the first programmable controller was
developed. These early controllers met the original specifications and opened the door to the
development of a new control technology. The first PLCs offered relay functionality and
1
SNJB Unit 4
replaced the original hardwired relay logic, which used electrically operated devices to
mechanically switch electrical circuits. They met the requirements of modularity,
expandability, programmability, and ease of use in an industrial environment. These
controllers were easily installed, used less space, and were reusable. The controller
programming, although a little tedious, had a recognizable plant standard: the ladder diagram
format. By 1971 PLC had spread to other automation industries such as food and beverage,
metals and manufacturing, pulp and paper.
PLC:
A programmable logic controller, commonly known as PLC, is a solid state, digital, industrial
computer using integrated circuits instead of electromechanical devices to implement control
functions. It was invented in order to replace the sequential circuits which were mainly used
for machine control. They are capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing,
counting, arithmetic, data manipulation and communication, to control machines and
processes.
According to NEMA (National Electrical Manufacture’s Association ,USA),the definition of

PLC has been given as “Digital electronic devices that uses a programmable memory to
store instructions and to implement specific functions such as logic , sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic to control machines and processes.
Block Diagram of a PLC:
All programmable controllers contain a CPU, memory, power supply, I/O modules, and
programmable devices. Basic parts of the PLC are as follows:-
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Input/output devices
4. Programming panel or unit
5. Power supply
2
SNJB Unit 4
Fig. Basic Parts of PLC
Processors module:
Processor module is the brain of the PLC. Intelligence of the PLC is derived from
microprocessor being used which has the tremendous computing and controlling capability.
Central processing –unit (CPU) performs the following tasks:
 Scanning
 Execution of program
 Peripheral and external device communication
 Self- diagnose
Power of PLCs depends on the type of microprocessors being used. Small size PLCs use 8-bit
microprocessors where as higher order controllers use bit-slice microprocessor in order to
achieve faster instruction execute
Principle of Operation
Modern day PLCs vary widely in their capabilities to control real world devices, like some
processors are able to handle the I/O devices as few as six and some are able to handle 40000
3
SNJB Unit 4
or even more. The no. of input/output control of PLCs depends on the, hardware, software,
overall capacity and memory capability of the PLCs.
The CPU upon receiving instruction from the memory together with feedback on the status of
the I/O devices generates commands for the output devices. These commands control the
devices on a machine or a process. Devices such as solenoid valves, indicator lamps, relay
coils and motor starters and typical loads to be controlled.
The machine or process input elements transmit signal to input modules which in turn,
generates logic signal to the CPU. CPU monitors the input like selector switches, push
buttons etc. Operating system is the main workhouse of the system and hence performs the
following tasks:-
1. Executions of application program

2. Management of memory
3. Communication between programmable controller and other units
4. I/O handling of interfaces
5. Resource sharing
6. Diagnostics
Note: operating system stored in ROM (non –volatile) memory, whereas application program
are stored in RWM (read-write memory).
Input modules:
There are many types of inputs to choose from. The types of input module can be Digital or
Analog the selection of input module depends upon the process requirement. Some example
of inputs are limit switches, proximity switches and push buttons, RTD, Thermocouple etc.
nature of input classification can be done in three ways, namely:
 Low/high frequency
 Analog/digital (two-bit, multi-bit)
 Maintained or momentary
 5V/24V/110V/220V switched
Some most industrial power systems are inherently noisy: electrical isolation is provided
between the input and the processor. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
4
SNJB Unit 4
interference (RFI) can cause severe problems in most solid state control systems. The
component used often to provide electrical isolation within I/O cards is called an optical
isolator or opto-coupler. Typically, there are 8 to 32 input points on any one input modules.
Each input point is assigned a unique address by the processor.
Output modules:
 Output modules can be used for devices such as solenoids, relays, contractors, pilot lamps
and led readouts. Output cards usually have 6 to 32 output points on a single module.
Output module, like input module, have electrically isolation between the load being
connected and the PLC. Analog output cards are a special type of output modules that use
digital to analog conversion. The analog output module can take a value stored in a 12 bit
file and convert it to an analog signal. Normally, this signal is 0-10 volts dc or 4-20ma.
This analog signal is often used in equipment, such as motor-operated valves and
pneumatic position control device. Each output point is identified with a unique address.
Addressing scheme:
Each I/O device has to be identified with a unique address for exchange of data. Different
manufacturer apply different method to identify i/o devices. One of the addressing schemes
may be “X1 X2 X3 X4 X5” where
 X1 = Input or output designation fixed by hardware (i/p = 1, o/p = 0)

 X2 = I/O rack number in PLC (user designation)
 X3 = Modules slot number in i/o rack (fixed by hardware)
 X4 X5 = Terminal number (fixed by hardware)
For example,” 1 2 3 13” implies that input is at rack 2, module slot no.3 and terminal address
no.13.
Programming unit:
It is an external, electronic handheld device which can be connected to the processors of the
PLC when programming changes are required. Once a program has been coded and is
considered finished, It can be burned in to ROM. The contents of ROM cannot be altered, as
it is not affected by power failure. Now days EPROM/EEPROM are provided in which
program can be debugged at any stage. Once the program is debugged, programming unit is
5
SNJB Unit 4
disconnected; and the PLC can operate process according to the ladder diagram or the
statement list.
Communications in PLC:
There are several methods how a PLC can communicate with the programmer, or even with
another PLC. PLCs usually built in communication ports for at least RS232, and optionally
for RS 485, and Ethernet. Modbus is the lowest common denominator communication
protocol. Others are various fieldbuses such as profibus, foundation field bus, etc.
PLCs are becoming more and more intelligent .in recent years, PLCs have been integrated in
to industrial networks, and all the PLCs in an industrial environment have been plugged in to
a network. The PLCs are then supervised by a control centre. There exist many types of
networks, SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition)
Operation of PLC:
During program execution, the processor reads all the inputs, and according to control
application program, energizes and de-energizes the outputs. Once all the logic has been
solved, the processors will update all the outputs. The process of reading the inputs,
executing the control application program, and updating the output is known as scan.
During the scan operation, the processor also performs housekeeping tasks. The inputs to the
PLCs are sampled by processor and the contents are stored in memory. Control program is
executed, the input value stored in memory are used in control logic calculations to determine
the value of output. The outputs are then updated. The cycle consisting of reading of inputs,
executing the control program, and actuating the output is known as “scan” and the time to
finish this task is known as Scan Time. The speed of PLC scan depends upon the clock speed
of CPU. The time to scan depends upon following parameter:
 Scan rate
 Length of the program
 Types of functions used in the program
Faster scan time implies the inputs and outputs are updated frequently. Due to advance
techniques of ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) within the microcomputer for
specific functions , scan time of different PLCs have reduced greatly.
6
SNJB Unit 4
PLC Selection Criterion :
PLC Selection decision is usually based upon the required inputs, outputs and functions of
the controller. This decision will depend upon the basic criteria listed below.
 Number of logical inputs and outputs.

 Memory - Often 1K and up. Need is dictated by size of ladder logic program. A
ladder element will take only a few bytes, and will be specified in manufacturer’s
documentation.
 Number of special I/O modules - When doing some exotic applications, a large
number of special add-on cards may be required.
 Scan Time - Big programs or faster processes will require shorter scan times. And,
the shorter the scan time, the higher the cost. Typical values for this are 1
microsecond per simple ladder instruction
 Communications - Serial and networked connections allow the PLC to be
programmed and talk to other PLCs. The needs are determined by the application.
 Software - Availability of programming software and other tools determines the
programming and debugging ease.
The process of selecting a PLC can be broken into the steps listed below.
1. Understand the process to be controlled

 List the number and types of inputs and outputs.
 Determine how the process is to be controlled.
 Determine special needs such as distance between parts of the process.
2. If not already specified, a single vendor should be selected. Factors that might be
considered are,
 Manuals and documentation
 Support while developing programs
 Support while troubleshooting
 Shipping times for emergency replacements
 Training
 The track record for the company
 Business practices (billing, upgrades/obsolete products, etc.)
7
SNJB Unit 4
3. Plan the ladder logic for the controls. (Note: Use the standard design sheets.)
4. Count the program instructions and use the instruction times and memory requirements
for each instruction to determine if the PLC has sufficient memory, and if the response
time will be adequate for the process.
5. How fast the control system must operate (speed of operation).
When determining speed of operation, consider these points:
 How fast does the process occur or machine operate?
 Are there “time critical” operations or events that must be detected?
 In what time frame must the fastest action occur (input device detection to output
device activation)?
 Does the control system need to count pulses from an encoder or flow-meter and
respond quickly?
6. The electrical requirements for inputs, outputs, and system power; When determining the
electrical requirements of a system, consider three items:
 Incoming power (power for the control system);
 Input device voltage; and
 Output voltage and current.
7. If the application requires sharing data outside the process, i.e. communication.
Communication involves sharing application data or status with another electronic device,
such as a computer or a monitor in an operator’s station. Communication can take place
locally through a twisted-pair wire, or remotely via telephone or radio modem.
8. If the system needs operator control or interaction. In order to convey information about
machine or process status, or to allow an operator to input data, many applications require
operator interfaces. Traditional operator interfaces include pushbuttons, pilot lights and
LED numeric display. Electronic operator interface devices display messages about
machine status in descriptive text, display part count and track alarms. Also, they can be
used for data input.
9. The physical environment in which the control system will be located. Consider the
environment where the control system will be located. In harsh environments, house the
control system in an appropriate IP-rated enclosure. Remember to consider accessibility
for maintenance, troubleshooting or reprogramming.
8
SNJB Unit 4
Processor Software/Executive Software (Scanning Process)
 The hardware of a PLC does not differ significantly from that of a computer. What makes
the PLC special is its software, which is called executive software.
 The executive software is the program that the PLC manufacturer provides internal to the
PLC, which executes the user’s program.
 This executive software determines what functions are available to the user’s program,
how the program is solved, how the I/O is serviced and what the PLC does during power
up or down and fault conditions.
 What the executive programme does is shown in the form of a flow chart as shown in Fig.
3.
 In fact, it can be said that executive software controls the whole functionality of a PLC.
The following points can be noted from the flow chart:
1. The diagnostic checks must be run during the power-up condition as well as during
the run loop, which is executed during the controlling of the process by a PLC.
2. When faults are detected, the outputs must be set to a predetermined safe state.
 A specific PLC may perform the basic functions shown somewhat differently, e.g., some
PLCs may perform diagnostics only at a single point in the executive program, while
others may perform diagnostics on line.
9
SNJB Unit 4
PLC Programming Languages
The International Electro-Technical Commission (IEC) has been working toward establishing
standardized forms for various PLC programming languages. There are about five common
PLC programming methods used in practice:
1. Structured text: A high level language similar to Pascal or C for developing well-
structured. control software.
2. Ladder diagrams: This is the most commonly used programming method evolved from
electrical relay circuits and is in the form of graphical language.
3. Function block diagram: A graphical programming language uses logics for digital
signals and numeric function blocks.
4. Sequential Function charts: A graphical programming language built around state
transition diagrams, developing control sequence programs that are time and event driven.
5. Instruction list (mnemonics): A low-level instruction language contains simple
mnemonics codes such as LD, AND, OR etc. and each code corresponds to the ladder
element. These mnemonics are then translated into machine language.
At present any PLC system can claim to be an IEC compliant system by implementing one or
two languages. Various configurations of programming either textual languages or graphical
languages are offered by PLC manufacturer. Ladder diagram is the most common language
and most of the PLC manufacturers offers this language for programming.
Ladder Logic: We will learn the PLC programming through ladder logic. The elements used
in ladder logic are represented symbolically. The symbols for a PLC input are of two types:
NO (normally open) and NC (normally closed). These symbols are shown in table below:
Table
10
SNJB Unit 4
There is a relationship between the real world switches, like the start buttons and the contacts
that show up on the ladder. One creates this relationship when he connects the real world
switch to the terminal on the input module and then uses the module identification number or
address to identify the contact in the program. Once the contact in the program is given the
number or address of the input module and terminal, it will reflect the ON or OFF state of the
real world switch. From this point on, whenever the switch is closed, the contacts in the
program will change.
If an open contact is programmed, it will change to the closed state and allow power to pass
through it. If a normally closed contact symbol is used in the program, the programmed
contacts will open and prevent power passing when the real world switch is closed. This is a
very critical relationship between the real world switch and the programmed contact.
The maximum number of contacts the real switch can control will be limited only by the
processor’s memory size.
The symbol for PLC output is given as
Fig. Symbol for PLC output
This is used in a ladder programme to turn on a. bit when circuit conditions are evaluated as
true. Some PLCs may use a slightly different symbol for an output.
The Program:
Fig. Program Structure
Each rung is a program statement. A program statement consists of a condition or conditions

along with some type of actions. Inputs are the conditions and the action or the output is the
result of these conditions. Each rung of the PLC ladder can be looked at as a problem the
11
SNJB Unit 4
processor has to solve. The PLC combines ladder program instructions similar to the way
hardware devices are physically wired in series or parallel. However, a PLC, instead of
working in series or parallel, combines instructions logically using logical operators, which
are fundamentally digital logic gates. These operators are used to combine the instructions on
a PLC rung so as to make the outcome of each rung either true or false. The symbol to
represent the result of implementation of the input logic on a part rung is the output and it is
always conneceted to right bus rail.
Program Format
The basic program format for a PLC is very similar to an electrical ladder diagram. This
format is used because the ladder diagram has been the working language of electricians for
many years.
It is also used because the computer scans the program in a sequential manner. Devices in a
schematic electrical diagram are described as being open or closed. PLC ladder instructions
are typically referred to as either true or false. When a PLC solves the user program, it is said
to be solving ladder logic. Ladder logic programming has some basic rules. They are:
 The power will flow from the left hand side bus rail to the right hand side bus rail.
 Each rung must start with a contact from the left and end with an output on the right.
 Outputs cannot be connected to the left bus rail.
 Contacts cannot be connected to the right bus rail
 Only one output may be placed on each rung.
 Each output can be used once in a program.
 Inputs with the same terminal number can be used many times.
Introduction to Logic : The normally open and normally closed contacts are used to solve
different logic functions. To convert a control objective into an equivalent ladder diagram,
the truth table of the control objective is first determined, then the equivalent digital logic
circuit is developed and lastly, the equivalent ladder logic program is drawn. The equivalent
ladder diagrams of some common digital circuits have been developed in the subsequent
sections considering that all gates are two input logic gates.
Equivalent Ladder Diagram of AND Gate : The truth table and the symbol of a two input
AND gate are given in Table and Fig. below respectively.
12
SNJB Unit 4
Table:
The Boolean expression is written as: Y = A. B
The output is high only when all the inputs are high. Therefore, the AND gate is equivalent to
a series combination of normally open switches in a ladder as shown in Fig. Below
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of OR Gate
Equivalent Ladder Diagram of OR Gate: The truth table and the symbol of a two input OR
gate are given in Table and Fig. below respectively.
Table:
The Boolean expression is written as: Y = A+ B
In an OR gate the output is high if any one or all of the inputs are high. Therefore, the OR
gate is equivalent to a parallel combination of normally open switches in the ladder as shown
in Fig. Below
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of OR Gate

13
SNJB Unit 4
Equivalent Ladder Diagram of NOT Gate: The truth table and the symbol of a two input
NOT gate are given in Table and Fig. below respectively.
Table:
The Boolean expression is written as: Y  A The NOT gate is an inverter, and is equivalent
to the XIC contact in the ladder as shown in Fig. Below
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NOT Gate
Equivalent Ladder Diagram of XOR Gate
The truth table and the symbol 0f a two input XOR gate are given in Table and Fig. below
respectively.
Table:
For an XOR gate, the Boolean expression is: Y  AB  AB .
Therefore the output of the XOR gate is 1 if one input is 1 and the other input is 0. The
equivalent ladder diagram is shown in Fig. below.
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of XOR Gate
14
SNJB Unit 4
Equivalent Ladder Diagram of NAND Gate
The truth table and the symbol of a two input NAND gate are given in Table and Fig. below
respectively.
Table:
The output of the NAND gate is zero if both the inputs are 1. Thus, a NAND gate is
equivalent to a parallel combination of two NC contacts as shown in Fig. below.
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NAND Gate
Equivalent Ladder diagram of NOR Gate
The truth table and the symbol of a two input NOR gate are given in Table and Fig. below
respectively.
Table:
The output of the NOR gate is 1, if and only if both the inputs are zero. Thus, the NOR gate is
equivalent to a series combination of two NC contacts as shown in Fig. below.
15
SNJB Unit 4
Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NAND Gate
Some Practical Examples
Problem 1: Develop a ladder diagram to fulfil the following conditions in a MCC panel:
When the start switch is Pressed, the motor gets ON and remains on untill stop switch is
Pressed; When the stop switch is Pressed, the motor gets OFF; When the motor is ON,
the green light is ON; When the motor is OFF, the red light is ON
The inputs are
Start Switch I1
Stop Switch I2
The outputs are
Motor Yl
Green Light Y2
Red Light Y3
The ladder diagram is shown in Fig.
Explaination of Ladder Diagram:
1. Rung 1 consists of NO contact of Start switch. When the switch is physically pressed
this contact get closed. NC contact of Stop switch will allow the rung condition become
true and thus Motor Y1 becomes ON. But if the Start switch is released Y1 will be OFF.
To avoide this the OR combination of the same output and Start switch is used. So that
once the Y1 gets ON will make NO contact Y1 ON and thus the motor will keep
running.
16
SNJB Unit 4
2. In Rung 2 NO contact Y1 is used. When motor is ON the Green
3. Light will be ON
4. In Rung 3 NC contact Y1 is used. When motor is OFF the Red Light will be ON
Problem 2: The level control system of a water tank has two level switches Ls 1, and Ls2, as
shown in Fig., such that when the water level > L1, (value of lower limiting level), Ls1 get
sensed i.e., Ls1, =1 and when the water level > L2, (value of upper limiting level), Ls2, get
sensed i.e., Ls2=1. The start switch is used for starting the level control system and the stop
switch stops its working. Design a ladder diagram to achieve the following objectives:
i. When the start push button is pressed the level control system will be
start
ii. When the stop push button is pressed the level control system will be
stop
iii. When the water level < L1 turn the pump ON and turn valve OFF
iv. When the water level > L2, turn the pump OFF and turn valve ON
The inputs are
Start Push Button I1

Stop Push Button I2
Level Switch LS1 I3
Level Switch LS2 I4
The outputs are
Pump Yl
Drain Valve Y2
17
SNJB Unit 4
1. Rung 1 consists of NO contact of Start switch. When the switch is physically pressed
this contact get closed. NC contact of Stop switch will allow the rung condition
become true and thus Control Relay CR1 becomes ON which is used for system
enabling. But if the Start switch is released CR1 will be OFF. To avoide this the OR
combination of the same output i.e. CR1 and Start switch is used. So that once the CR1
gets ON will make NO contact CR1 ON and thus the system will remain enabled.
2. In Rung 2 NO contact CR1 is used in series with series combination of NC contacts
LS1 and LS2 the pump will get ON but the level will soon cross LS1 and the pump to be
keep ON till LS2 get sensed for the same OR combination of I3 and Y1 is used. The
Pump will get OFF when the level crosses LS2.
3. In Rung 3 NO contact CR1 is used in series with series combination of NO contacts
LS2 and LS1 the drain valve will get ON but the level will soon come below LS2 and the
drain valve to be keep ON till LS1 get desensed for the same OR combination of I4 and
Y2 is used. The drain valve will get OFF when the level comes below LS1.
4. The rung 2 condition will be satisfied and the cycle will be repeated till the system is
enabled.
Problem 3: A bi-directional movable arm is shown in Fig. Develop a ladder diagram to

control it as per the conditions mentioned. The conditions that apply to the problem are as
follows:
Both the start and stop switches are push buttons. When the system is turned ON, the motor
should rotate continuously, alternating between the counter clockwise and clockwise
directions, as the movable arm touches two limit switches, RLS and LLS.
18
SNJB Unit 4
The inputs are

Stop Push Button I2
Limit Switch LLS I3
Limit Switch RLS I4
The outputs are
Clock wise Rotation of Motor Yl
Counter Clock wise Rotation of Motor Y2
PLC Timers and Counters
Definition and Classification of a Timer
A timer is a device that introduces a time delay in a circuit or a system during it’s ON or OFF
condition. Timers can be classified as follows:
19
SNJB Unit 4
1. Electromechanical timers
2. Electronic timers,
3. PLC timers.
An electromechanical timer uses an oil dashpot or a spring to introduce a time delay as soon as an
electrical signal initiates it. An electronic timer uses an electronic circuit for incorporating a time
delay and in a PLC timer, the time delay is introduced by programming.
Characteristics of a PLC Timer
The schematic diagram of a function block PLC timer is shown in Fig.
The contacts on the left side of the timer function block are the timer-enable contacts. When
they are closed, power passes to the left terminal of the timer, its clock is enabled and it starts
timing. When they are open, power stops flowing through this terminal, and the timer stops
functioning.
A timer function block has three output contacts. When the timer is timed out, DONE Bit
(DN) is set. The enable bit follows the input enable contact status. If the enable contact is true
then output Enable Bit (EN) is true. The Timer Timing (TT) bit is set when the timer is
operating.
Functions in a Timer
Time Base: One outstanding feature of programmable timer is the variety of time base
available. Most PLCs offer two or three time bases. The most common time bases are 0.01
sec, 0.1 sec and 1 sec. intervals.
Accumulator value (ACC): This is the time that has elapsed, since the timer was last reset.
When enabled, a timer updates this continually.
Preset value (PRF): This specifies the value that the timer must reach before the controller
sets the DONE bit. The programmer determines the preset time. When the accumulator value
becomes equal to or greater than the preset value, the timer stops operating and the done bit is
20
SNJB Unit 4
set. This bit can be used to control an output device. Preset and accumulator values for timers
range from 0 to +32, 767. If a timer preset on accumulator value is a negative number, a run
time error occurs.
Resetting - Retentive and Non-retentive
When the accumulative value of a timer is 0, it is said to be in the reset condition. When the
timer’s accumulative values are reset to zero each time the input enable contact is open, it is
said to be a non-retentive timer. The timer does not retain or remember the accumulative
value when the enabled contacts are opened. There may be times in an industrial process
when one wants to retain the timer or remember the accumulative value the timer has reached
even though the enabled contacts are opened. For instance, a person wants to keep track of
the total running time of a motor over one year. The motor may only run three or four hours a
day and may turn on and off several times. A retentive timer does not reset its accumulative
value to zero when its enabled contacts are opened. Instead, it remembers or retains its
accumulative value. Opening its enable contacts only stops the timer from running. In order
to reset the retentive timer a reset instruction is used.
Classification of a PLC Timer
ON-Delay and OFF-Delay Timers
As shown in Fig. above, there are two types of delay timers i.e. ON Delay Timer (TON or
TDE) and OFF Delay Timer (TOF or TDD). If the timer contact is made ON after lapse of a
certain time counted from the instant of energisation of the timer coil, that timer is called an
ON delay timer. If the timer contact is made OFF after lapse of a certain time counted from
the instant of de-energisation of the timer coil, that timer is called an OFF delay timer.
Timer ON-Delay
This instruction is used to delay turning an output on or off. The TON instruction begins to
count time base intervals when the rung condition becomes true. As long as the rung
condition remains true the timer increments its accumulator value, over each scan until it
21
SNJB Unit 4
reaches the preset value. The accumulator value is reset when the rung condition becomes
false, regardless of whether the timer has timed out. The schematic diagram of such a timer is
shown in Fig. below.
Timer OFF-Delay
This instruction is used to delay turning an output on or off. The TOF instruction begins to
count time base intervals when the rung condition makes a true-to-false transition. As long as
the rung condition remains false the timer increments its accumulator value over each scan
until it reaches the preset value. The controller resets the accumulated value when the rung
condition becomes true regardless of whether the timer has timed out. A schematic diagram
of such a timer is shown in Fig. below.
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a two-motor system having the following conditions:
1. Starting push button starts motor -1
2. After 10 seconds, motor -2 is ON
3. Stopping the switch stops motor 1 and 2
The inputs are

Stop Push Button I2
The outputs are
Motor-1 Yl
Motor-2 Y2
22
SNJB Unit 4
Based on the above inputs, outputs and time base, the ladder diagram has been developed as
shown in Fig.
The start switch starts motors 1 and 2. The stop switch stops motor 1 first, after 15 seconds
motor 2 stops.
The inputs are

Stop Push Button I2
The outputs are
Motor-1 Yl
Motor-2 Y2
shown in Fig.
23
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a three—motor system having the following conditions:
Motor 2 (M2) can start 5 seconds after Motor 1 (M1) starts, when M2 is running, Motor 3
(M3) can be started. When M2 is turned off, M3 is off. When M1 is turned off, both M2 and
M3 stop.
To develop the ladder diagram, the following inputs and outputs are considered:
The inputs are

Start Push Button for M1 I1
Stop Push Button for M1 I2
The outputs are
Motor-1 Yl
Motor-2 Y2
Motor-3 Y3
shown in Fig.
24
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a Traffic Light system having the following conditions:
Green indicator for each lane will be ON for 30 seconds. After green indicator goes OFF
Yellow Indicator will turn ON for 5 seconds. And then Red Indicator turns ON. The same
cycle will execute for lane 1 first then for lane 2, 3 and 4 sequentially and then the cycle will
be repeated.
The outputs are
Lane 1 Green Yl Lane 3 Green Y7

Lane 1 Yellow Y2 Lane 3 Yellow Y8
Lane 1 Red Y3 Lane 3 Red Y9
Lane 2 Green Y4 Lane 4 Green Yl0
Lane 2 Yellow Y5 Lane 4 Yellow Y11
Lane 2 Red Y6 Lane 4 Red Y12
shown in Fig.
25
SNJB Unit 4
26
SNJB Unit 4
27
SNJB Unit 4
PLC Counter
In the manufacturing process industry, it is always necessary to count the number of items
produced, and the number of operations performed (either of one particular operation or a
combined number of a few operations). In such operations, counters are used. An electro
mechanical counter comprises solenoids, springs, lever mechanisms etc. for counting an
action and recording it. This has the disadvantage that, failure of any part of the counter leads
to errors in its readings. On the other hand, a counter in a PLC utilises a sensor to count
operations, which is processed by software execution in the PLC. Thus, the failure rate is
reduced and the accuracy level is increased in a PLC counter. The range of count’ of a PLC
counter is much larger than that of an electromechanical counter.
Operation of a PLC Counter
The counter instructions operate in a similar manner to those of the timer instructions in the
PLC. The major difference between the counter and the timer is that timer instructions will
continually increment its accumulative value at a rate determined by the time base when the
enable contact is on. On the other hand, the counter must see a complete contact transition
from 0 to 1 each time it increments the accumulative value. This means that the contact must
return to its zero state before it can have a transition for a second time. In a counter, the
contact can stay closed for any amount of time after a transition. What is important is that the
transition has taken place.
Counter Parameters
In general, a PLC counter has two parameters: (a) The accumulator value (ACC) and (b) The
Pre-set value (PRE).
a. The accumulator value (ACC) is the number of false-to-true transitions that have occurred
since the counter was last reset:
b. The preset value (PRE) specifies the value that the counter must reach, before the
controller sets the done bit. When the accumulator value becomes equal to or greater than
the preset value, the done status bit is set. This can be used to control an output device.
Preset and accumulated values for counters range from -32,768 to +32,767 and are stored as
signed integers. Negative values are stored as 2’s compliment form.
28
SNJB Unit 4
Types of Counters:
a. Up Counter (CTU) b. Down Counter (CTD)
Up Count (CTU)
The CTU is an instruction that counts false-to-true rung transitions, Rung transition can be
caused by events occurring in the program (from internal logic or by external field devices).
When the rung condition for a CTU instruction has made a false to true transition, the
accumulated value is incremented by one count, provided ·that, the rung containing the CTU
instruction is evaluated between these transitions. The ability of the counter to detect a false-
to-true transition depends on the speed (frequency) of the incoming signal. The ON and OFF
duration of an incoming signal must not be faster than the scan time. The accumulated value
is retained when the rung condition again becomes false.
The accumulated count is retained until cleared by a reset (RES) instruction that has the same
address as the counter reset i.e. When the reset instruction is used for a counter, the ACC
value is ‘0’.
The function block of a count-up CTU is shown in Fig.
Count Down (CTD)
The CTD is a retentive output instruction that counts false to true rung transitions. When the
rung condition for a CTD instruction has made a false—to—true transition, the accumulated
value is decremented by one count, provided that the rung containing the CTD instruction is
evaluated between these transitions. The accumulated counts are retained when the rung
condition again becomes false.
The accumulated count is retained until cleared by a reset (RES) instruction that has the same
address as the counter reset i.e. When the reset instruction is used for a counter, the ACC
value is ‘0’.
The function block of a count-down CTD is shown in Fig.
29
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Design a ladder diagram that will control a stepper motor so that it moves 10
steps forward, waits for 20 seconds, and then cause the motor to move 10 steps in the
reverse direction.
The inputs are
Start Push Button I1 Stop Push Button I2
The outputs are
Motor Forward/Reverse Yl Stepper Motor Pulse output Y2
[The stepper input pulse is 0.5 second ON and 0.5 second OFF] Based on the above inputs
and outputs, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown in Fig.
30
SNJB Unit 4
31
SNJB Unit 4
Problem 1: Design a 4:1 multiplexer using ladder logic. Assume the inputs are connected to I:0/1 and
I:0/2, I:0/3 and I:0/4; control signals are connected to 1:0/5 and 1:0/6 and the output terminal is
0:0/1.
A multiplexer is a circuit with many inputs but only one output. By applying a suitable control
signal, any input can be steered to the output.
The schematic diagram of an n:1 multiplexer is shown in Fig below. The circuit diagram of a 4:1
multiplexer is shown in Fig. the truth table is shown in below and the equivalent ladder diagram
is also shown in Fig.
If n is the number of input signals and m is the number of control signals, then
2m = n
In the present design, n = 4 and hence m = 2.
Truth Table of 4: 1 Multiplexer
Control Signal S1 Control Signal S2 Output Y
0 0 I0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
1 1 I3
The output can then be expressed as:
Y  S1 S 0 I  S1 S 0 I 1  S1 S 0 I 2  S1 S 0 I 3
32
SNJB Unit 4
When S1S0 = 00, the upper NAND gate is enabled but all the other NAND gates are disabled.
Therefore, data-bit IO is transmitted to the output giving Y =I0. lf the control word is changed to
01, the second NAND gate is enabled and all other gates are disabled. In this case Y = I 1 and so
on.
Problem 2: Design a 1:4 demultiplexer using ladder logic. Assume the inputs are connected to
I:0/1, control signals are connected to I:0/2 and I:0/3 and the output terminals are O:0/ 1, O:0/2,
O:0/3 and O:0/4.
A demultiplexer is a circuit with one input and many outputs. By applying proper control signal,
the input signal can be steered to one of the output lines. The schematic diagram of a
demultiplexer is shown in Fig.
The truth table of a 1: 4 demultiplexer is shown in Table below and its ladder logic realisation is
shown in Fig. below.
33
SNJB Unit 4
Problem 3: A selection committee comprises four members including the chairman. In order for
a candidate to be selected, he or she has to have the support of at least two members. The
chairman, however, can push any candidate through. lf each member is provided with a switch,
design a logic that will ring a bell when a candidate is selected.
Assume the switch of the chairman is represented by CH, that of the first member is by A, the
second member by B and the third member by C. The inputs and the output are connected to
the PLC as follows:
Then the logic for the desired operation can be written as
The truth table for the logic operation can be written as given in Table
34
SNJB Unit 4
The ladder diagram for the above logic diagram is shown in Fig.
Problem 4: A railway station has 3 platforms A, B and C. A train is coming into the station. It has
to be given entry to platform A if A is empty. If both A and B are occupied then it has to be given
entry to platform C. lf all the platforms are full then the train has to wait. Design the necessary
logic diagram.
The input signals for the conditions described in the problem are as follows:
Ta - Train present at A
Tb — Train present at B
Tc - Train present at C
Pa - G0 to platform A
Pb - Go t0 platform B
Pc — G0 to platform C
W —- wait
The inputs to the PLC are Ta, Tb and Tc, which are fed through terminals I:0/1, I:0/2 and I:0/3
respectively; the outputs are Pa, Pb, Pc and W taken out from the PLC through the terminals O:0/1,
O:0/2, O:0/3 and O:0/4 respectively.
The truth table can be written as given in Table
35
SNJB Unit 4
The ladder logic diagram for the above system is shown in Fig.
Exercise: A coal handling plant has three coal conveyors C1, C2 and C3. C1 is fed from the output of
the crusher, C2 is the mid-belt and C3 pushes coal to the bunker. The requirements of the plant are
as follows: C1 and C2 will be in the 0N mode only when C3 is ON; C1 will be 0N only when C2 and C3
are 0N; C1 and C2 trip when C3 trips; C1 trips when C2 trips but C3 is ON; and C1 trips when C2 and
C3 trip. Design a logic diagram for the above.
Problem: Develop a ladder diagram to fulfil the following conditions in a MCC:

When the start switch is ON, the motor is ON
When the stop switch is ON, the motor is OFF
When the motor is ON, the green light is ON
When the motor is OFF, the red light is ON
The inputs are fed to the terminals
Start I:0/1
Stop I:0/2
The outputs are fed to the terminals
Motor O:0/l
Green O:0/2
Red O:0/3
36
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: The level control system of a water tank has two level switches Ls1, and Ls2, as shown in
Fig., such that when the water level > L1, (value of lower limiting level), Ls2, is ON i.e., the output of
Ls1, =1 and when the water level > L2, (value of upper limiting level), Ls2, is ON i.e., the output of
Ls2=1. Design a ladder diagram to achieve the following objectives:
(i) When the water level < L1 turn the pump ON
(ii) When the water level > L2, turn the pump OFF
The control of the problem is of the ON/OFF type and L1L2 is the differential gap. To develop the
ladder diagram, the logics may be stated as follows: `
lf Ls1=0 and Ls2 = 0, then turn the pump ON.
When the water level > L1, Ls1=1 and Ls2=0, the pump remains ON.
When the water level > L2, Ls1=1 and Ls2= 1, the pump is OFF
Now the water level starts decreasing. When the water level is such that, Ls1<L<Ls2,
Ls1=1 and Ls2=0, the pump remains OFF.
Thus, the logics may be developed as given below:
1. Ls1=0, Ls2=0, Pump=1
2. Ls1=1, Ls2=1, Pump=0
3. Ls1=1, Ls2=0, If Pump=1, Pump should be 1
If Pump=0, Pump should be 0
The inputs and outputs are as follows:
Inputs: Output:
Start switch I:0/11 . pump O:0/2
37
SNJB Unit 4
Stop switch I:0/12
B 3/12 is bit number 12 of binary file. The bit is used for temporary storage of Rung 1 output status.
The ladder diagram is shown in Fig
Problem: A bi-directional movable arm is shown in Fig. Develop a ladder diagram to control it as per
the conditions mentioned.
The conditions that apply to the problem are as follows:
Both the start and stop switches are push buttons. When the system is turned ON, the motor should
rotate continuously, alternating between the counter clockwise and clockwise directions, as the
movable arm touches two limit switches, RLS and LLS.
Inputs:
Start switch I:0/11
Stop Switch I:0/12
LLS I:0/13
RLS I:0/14
Outputs:
CCW Rotation O:0/2 CW Rotation O:0/3
The ladder diagram is built in three rungs.
2nd Rung: The motor rotates counter-clockwise when,
1. The start push button is pressed AND
2. LLS = 0 AND
38
SNJB Unit 4
3. RLS = 1 Or, the motor does not rotate clockwise.
3rd Rung: The motor rotates clockwise, if,
1. The start push button is pressed AND
2. Motor does not rotate anticlockwise.
On the basis of the above logic, the ladder diagram has been developed and is shown in Fig.
4. Starting push button starts motor -1
5. After 10 seconds, motor -2 is ON
6. Stopping the switch stops motor 1 and 2
Time base = 1 sec,
Input Output
Start = I:0/10 M1 = O:0/1
Stop = I:0/1 M2 = O:0/2
Based on the above inputs, outputs and time base, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown
in Fig.
39
SNJB Unit 4
The start switch starts motors 1 and 2. The stop switch stops motor 1 first, after 15 seconds motor 2
stops.
Input Output
Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1
Stop=I:0/2 M2=O:0/2
Based on the above inputs and outputs, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown in Fig.
The start switch starts motor 1; and 10 seconds later motor 2 starts; the stop switch stops motor 1
and 15 seconds later motor 2 stops.
Input Output
Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1
Stop=I:0/2 M2=O0/2
40
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a three—motor system having the following conditions:
Motor 2 (M2) can start 5 seconds after Motor 1 (M1) starts, when M2 is running, Motor 3 (M3) can
be started.
When M2 is turned off, M3 is off. When M1 is turned off, both M2 and M3 stop.
Input Output
Start= I:0/10 For M1 M1 O:0/0
Stop=I:0/11
Stop=I:0/13
Stop=I:0/15
Problem: Draw ladder diagram for a three-motor system having the following conditions:
Motor 1 (M1) starts as soon as the start switch is on; after 10 seconds, M1 goes off and motor 2
(M2) starts. After 5 seconds, M2 goes off and M3 starts. After 10 seconds, M3 goes off, M1 starts
and the cycle is repeated.
To develop the ladder diagram, following inputs and outputs are considered:
Input Output
Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1; M2=O:0/2; M3=O:0/3; System=O:0/4

Stop=I:0/2
41
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a three-motor system having the following conditions:
Motor 1 (M1) starts as soon as the start switch is on, after 10 seconds, M1 goes off and M2 starts.
After 5 seconds, M2 goes off and M3 comes on. After 10 seconds, M3 goes off and M2 comes on;
and after 5 seconds, M2 goes off and M1 comes on, and the cycle is repeated.
To develop the ladder diagram, the following inputs and outputs are considered.
Input Output

Stop=I:0/2
42
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for an agitator—motor system having the following conditions:
Agitator starts; After 5 seconds the pump can be started; when the pump is switched off, the
agitator also stops; when the agitator goes off, it cannot be started for 3 seconds.
Input Output

Stop=I:0/2
43
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Blinking indicator lights are used quite extensively in industry. Design a circuit in which two
lights are flashed alternately every 5 seconds.
Input Output
Start=I:0/1 Light 1=O:0/1; Light 2=O:0/2
44
SNJB Unit 4
Problem: Draw a ladder diagram for a box packaging system having the following conditions.
Five boxes are stacked at a time and then bound with a wrapper.
The input and output are as follows:
1. Box present signal = l:0/1
2. Wrapper machine relay = 0:0/1
3. Go to step 1
Problem: Design a ladder diagram that will control a stepper motor so that it moves 10 steps
forward, waits for 20 seconds, and then cause the motor to move 10 steps in the reverse direction.
The inputs and outputs can be arrayed as follows:
Start Switch = I:0/1; For forward/reverse motion = O:0/2
For stepper pulse out = O:0/1
[The stepper input pulse is 0.5 second ON and 0.5 second OFF]
The rules can be written as shown in Table.
Is the number of program cycle.

Based on the above inputs and outputs, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown in fig.
45
SNJB Unit 4
Exercise: Create a 24 hours time delay that will give an alarm of 10 seconds duration, after which the
entire system is reset. This system is repeated. Draw a ladder diagram for this system.
Exercise: Write a program to show a counter that will count upto 40,000. Draw a ladder diagram for
this system.
Exercise: Make a program to turn a lamp ON after a specific time and then to turn a fan ON a fixed
time after turning the lamp ON. Draw a ladder diagram for this system.
Exercise: Design a counter to count the number of vehicles passing a major intersection in a city.
Draw a ladder diagram for this system.
46
SNJB Unit 4
Discrete Input Module
 The discrete input module is the most common input interface used with PLCs.
 Discrete input signals from field devices can be either AC or DC.
Discrete DC Input Module
A schematic diagram of a discrete dc input module is shown in Fig. below.
 A discrete input signal is received by the module from field devices isolated optically from the
CPU circuit.
Discrete AC Input Module
 A discrete input module receives a signal of a specific value representing the ON or OFF state of
a system.
 Common inputs include limit switches, proximity switches, photoelectric switches, selector
switches, relay contacts and contact closures from other equipment.
 The input module is considered as the load for the field input device.
 The module's job is to convert the high-voltage ac signal to the 5V DC level, with which the PLC
can work, verify the input as a valid signal, isolate the high-voltage field device signal from the
lower-voltage CPU signal and send the appropriate ON or OFF signal to the CPU.
 The circuitry contained in an input module consists of three parts: field signal conversion,
isolation, and logic as illustrated in Fig.
47
SNJB Unit 4
Rectifier with Filter
 The rectification section usually consists of a bridge rectifier, which converts the incoming AC
signal to a pulsating DC signal.
 The DC signal is passed through filters to give a conditioned DC input signal.
 The filtered DC signal goes on to the threshold detector.
 Filtering and time delays are used to filter out possible electrical noise that may be interpreted
as a false input pulse.
 To eliminate the possibility of faulty operation due to electrical noise, a valid AC input signal
must not only have a specific value, but must be present for a specific amount of time before the
input module allows the valid signal to pass to the subsequent section.
Threshold Detection
 Threshold detection circuitry detects whether the level of the input signal has exceeded a
predetermined set value.
 Depending on this it is classified as a valid ON or OFF signal.
 A typical valid OFF state is between 0 and 20 or 30V AC and a valid ON may be between 80 and
130V AC, as shown in Fig.
 These values may vary from one manufacture to another.
 The signal area between 20 volts and 80 volts is called the undefined area.
 Signals falling within this undefined area may be ON or OFF, making them unstable and
unreliable.
Isolation
 The isolation section of the input circuit is usually made up of an optical isolator, or opto-
coupler.
 This circuit essentially separates the high voltage signal circuit from the low voltage CPU section.
 A commonly used opto-isolator circuit is shown in Fig. below.
 It consists of a LED and a phototransistor.
 Once the LED is energised, it emits light to switch on a phototransistor that is connected to the
power circuit.
 Optical isolation protects the low-voltage CPU and its associated circuitry by preventing spikes or
high-voltage transients in the input circuit from transferring to the low-voltage circuitry.
48
SNJB Unit 4
Logic Section
 DC signals from the isolation section are used by the logic section to pass the input signal to the
module's input address LED and the CPU.
 From there the input signal is passed on to the input status file via wires on the rack's backplane
called the data bus.
Specifications of a Discrete Input Module
 The specifications of a discrete input module include a number of information as shown in Table,
where some typical values have also been given.
49
SNJB Unit 4
Discrete Output Modules
 Like discrete inputs, discrete outputs are used most often.
 Discrete output modules simply act as switches to control output field devices.
 They fall into two categories solid-state output switching and relay output switching.
 The schematic diagram of a discrete dc output module is shown in Fig. below
 Discrete output modules receive their operating power from the power supply of the PLC, which
comes from the backplane.
 A block diagram of a discrete output module is shown in Fig. above.
 lt is seen that the module consists of some potential free contacts operated by signals from the
CPU.
 Once this signal appears at the output terminals of the module, the indicating LED glows.
 This signal is again isolated from the output power circuit by an opto-isolator, amplified by the
amplifier and interfaced with the real world power circuit.
 Field output devices like coils, relays etc., powered by a power supply external to the PLC receive
the signal to operate for final control action.
Analog Input Module
 An analog input module interfaces a PLC to analog input signals.
 While discrete signals are simply two state signals, analog input modules give the PLC the ability
to monitor a continuously changing input signal representing pressure, temperature, flow etc.
 The module converts analog input signals to 16-bit binary values for storage in the processors
input image table.
 The decimal range, number of significant bits, and converter resolution depend on the input
range that is used for the channel.
 Analog input modules are selected to accept either a current or a voltage input signal.
50
SNJB Unit 4
 Input signal levels are usually either 0 to 10V DC, -10V to + 10V DC, 0 to 5V DC, 1 to 5V DC, 0 -
20mA, -20 to + 20mA or 4-20mA.
 Analog modules convert the analog input signal through an ADC to a digital signal.
 The digitised signal is passed through optical isolation to an onboard processor in the backplane.
 The backplane transfers the digitised signal to the CPU and on to the data file for storage.
Analog Input Module Operation
 Analog control of a process refers to continuous control, where the signal amplitude varies with
time.
 With digital control, the signal amplitude varies between discrete zero and a discrete maximum
value (on/off) with time.
 To have a conceptual idea of an analog control application, let us consider the process of a
moulding system.
 In this system, moulding material is forced into the mould cavity at controlled pressure.
 The purpose of the control system is to control the pressure in the module cavity according to a
pressure algorithm programmed into the processor.
 The pressure algorithm controls the filling of the mould cavity and attaining the desired density
of material in the mould cavity.
 The analog I/O module converts the analog signal from the pressure sensor (process variable) to
a digital signal for transfer to the processor.
 The module also converts the digital signal from the processor to an analog signal (control
variable) to control the pressure in the mould cavity by adjusting pressure or flow through the
valve.
 This is achieved by executing PLC programs.
 Standard analog I/O modules respond to changes in analog signals measured in seconds.
 Fast analog I/O modules respond to changes in analog signals measured in milliseconds.
 The schematic diagram of an analog voltage input module is shown in Fig. below.
 When an analog signal reaches an input module, it is rich in different noise signals.
 The signal is freed from noise through noise minimisation circuits.
 The signal is then digitised and sent to the logic section through an isolation circuit.
 The logic section allows the digitised signal to go to the CPU following a pre-determined logic.
51
SNJB Unit 4
Noise Minimisation
 Inputs on analog modules employ high frequency digital filters that significantly reduce the
effects of electrical noise on input signals.
 However, because of the variety of applications and environments where analog modules are
installed and operating, it is impossible to ensure that all environmental noise will be removed
by the input filters.
 Several specific steps can be taken to minimise the effects of environmental noise on analog
signals:
• Install the I/O module in a properly rated enclosure with proper grounding.
• Use screened/shielded cables to carry the signals, with the screen/shield properly grounded.
• Also use a grounded conduit through which analog signal cables are passed.
• AC modules or cables should be separated from DC modules or cables to avoid interference.
Specifications of an Analog Input Module
 The specifications of an analog input module should include the information shown in Table
below where some typical values have also been given.
52
SNJB Unit 4
Special Input Modules

 Special input modules fall into the category of smart modules.
 A smart module contains its own processor and is designed for a specific function.
 Some common types of special modules are discussed in the subsequent sections.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) Input Module
 A resistance temperature detector (RTD) input module interfaces a PLC to RTD temperature-
sensing elements and other types of resistance input devices such as potentiometers.
 The RTD input module converts analog input signals from a potentiometer or RTD, into input
signals understood by the PLC.
 These values are stored in the PLC input table.
Thermocouple/Mili volt Input Module
 The thermocouple/mili volt input module converts inputs from various thermocouple or mili volt
devices into values that can be input and stored into PLC data tables.
 This module greatly enhances the flexibility of a PLC system by interfacing thermocouples, thus
eliminating expensive thermocouple transmitters.
 Table below gives the general specifications of thermocouple and RTD modules
53
SNJB Unit 4
Table below shows the specifications of different types of thermocouples.
54
SNJB Unit 4
High-speed Encoder Input Module

 When input pulses come at a faster rate, a high-speed input module is used to handle them.
 High-speed counters are also used to interface encoders to a PLC.
Stepper Motor Control Module
 A stepper motor control module is an intelligent module that is kept in a PLC chassis.
 It provides a digital output pulse train for micro-stepping stepper motor applications.
Self Diagnostic Module
 In general, a PLC performs standard diagnostic tests on its system, but these tests cannot detect
problems with data and control lines on an I/O bus.
 A self-diagnostic module is capable of checking these problems.
 In addition, a self diagnostic module is able to check the following activities of a PLC: Processor
scan-loss detection, monitoring of the I/O control signals e.g. input status scan control, input
strobe, output strobe, system clock, power fail etc.
RS-232C Interface Module
 Communication modules are available that are inherent in the PLC chassis itself.
 They used to connect a PLC to telephone lines using a modem.
 PLCs connected to telephone lines allow central control room operators to examine ladder
programs to modify or edit at remote PLC sites.
55
SNJB Unit 4
 Remote access by way of telephone lines saves maintenance people from driving to remote sites
each time a PLC encounters a problem or a program change is necessary.
 This helps in maintaining unmanned plants.
Remote I/O Sub-scanners
 For a remotely mounted I/O, some PLC systems require a remote I/O sub-scanner.
 This sub-scanner is provided with the base CPU, and relieves the CPU from the burden of
scanning a remote I/O.
 A sub-scanner scans the signals from a remote I/O.
 After the sub-scanner has scanned all remote I/O points, their I/O status is stored in a built-in
buffer (storage area).
 At the appointed time in the CPU's scan, the CPU will read the I/O status data stored in the Sub-
scanner's buffer.
Communication Modules
 ASII I/O Modules and ASCII I/O modules allow the interfacing of bar code readers, meters,
printers and data terminals to a PLC.
 ASCII modules, which accept only valid ASCII data, are not used as extensively.
 The RS-232 module is commonly used today.
Analog Output Module
 Analog output modules accept a I6-bit output status word, which they convert to an analog
value through a digital-to—analog converter.
 Typical analog signals are 0 to 10V DC, -10 to +10V DC, 0 to 5V DC, 1 to 5V DC, 0 to 20 milliamps,
-20 to + 20 milliamps, or 4 to 20 milliamps.
 Analog output modules are selected to send out either a varying current or voltage signal.
 Each value of current or voltage will represent a particular operation.
 For example, if the speed of a dc motor is to be varied, over a range of say 1000 - 3000 rpm, the
voltage of an output module of range 0 - 1V DC will represent a specific speed over the range.
 General specifications of an analog output module are given in Table below.
56
SNJB Unit 4
Example 1: Typical Starting Scheme of a Mill Motor in a Boiler Plant
A simplified control circuit of a starting scheme of a mill motor in a boiler plant has the following
sequence:
1. The FD fan is ON.
2. Furnace oil level interlock is satisfied.
3. When (1) and (2) are satisfied, a Master Fuel Relay (MFR) is energised.
4. This energises an auxiliary relay MFRA and an indication lamp, L, indicating that, "lnterlock
Stage-1 Ready".
5. When the conditions "Coal Feeder Off", "Coal Bunker Level High", "Cold Air Damper Open",
"Hot Air Damper Open" are satisfied after MFRA ON, the Closing Coil of the Circuit Breaker
(CCBR) of the mill motor will be energised, if the start PB is switched on.
The motor will start.
On the basis of the above conditions, the following inputs and outputs are specified:
The inputs are: The outputs are:
System ON/ OFF= I:0/1 FD Fan= O:0/1
Furnace Oil level interlock= I:0/2 Master Fuel Relay (MFR)= O:0/2
Coal Feeder ON/OFF= I:0/3 Auxiliary Relay MFRA= O:0/3
Coal Bunker Level High/ Low= I:0/4 Indication Lamp L1= O:0/4
Cold air damper close/ open= I:0/5 Circuit Breaker CCBR= O:0/5
Hot air damper close/ Open= I:0/6
Start Push Button=I:0/11
On the basis of the above inputs and outputs, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown in
Fig. below.
57
SNJB Unit 4
Example 2: Simplified Start-up Process of Coal Feeding to a Boiler Plant
The starting sequence is as follows:
a) Starting of Distributor Conveyor-3 [CC-3]
b) Electromagnet (EM-1)
c) Coal Conveyor - 2 [CC—2]
d) Screen Vibrator [SV]
e) Coal Crusher [CC]
f) Electromagnet [EM2]
g) Coal Conveyor - 1 [CC-1]
h) Coal Feeder Vibrator (Main Input) [CFV]
The start-up process with interlock for the plant is as follows:
1. CC-3 is turned ON manually
2. A Timer T1 is ON. A time-delay—close contact (T1 DC) closes after 90 seconds, which turns
an auxiliary relay ON.
3. This turns EM-1 ON. Simultaneously, it turns a second timer T2 ON.
4. A T2 DC (5 minutes) contact turns an auxiliary relay ARA ON after 5 minutes. .
5. CC-2 then starts.
6. At the instant CC-2 starts, another timer T3 turns ON.
7. A T3 DC (10 minutes) contact closes after 10 minutes to energise an auxiliary relay ARC that
turns the screen vibrator and another timer T4, ON.
8. The screen vibrator runs for 5 minutes after which the coal crusher starts through ARD.
9. Along with CC, EM—2 starts. After a lapse of 10 minutes from the start of CC and EM-2, CC-1
starts through T5 and ARF.
10. Once CC-1 starts, the main Coal Feeder Vibrator (CFV) runs for l0 minutes and stays ON for 5
minutes. This system goes on running.
CC3 ON/ OFF= I:0/1 Auxiliary Relay 1= O:0/1
Auxiliary Relay ARA= O:0/3
Auxiliary Relay ARC= O:0/5
Auxiliary Relay ARD= O:0/7
Auxiliary Relay ARF= O:0/10
CFV= O:0/11
58
SNJB Unit 4
Fig. below.
59
SNJB Unit 4
Example 3: Simplified Start-up Process of Fuel Circuit of a Boiler
The starting sequence of the above circuit is:
1. ID Fan
2. FD Fan
3. Coil Mill
4. Coal Feeder
The steps of the start-up process are:
1. When the ID fan is ON, an auxiliary relay AR and a timer T1 are turned ON.
2. After 5 minutes, the Time Delay Close Contactor (T1DC), ARA is turned ON.
3. When ARA is ON and ID is ON, FD fan turns ON.
4. When the FD fan is ON, a timer T2 turns ON.
5. Ten minutes after starting the FD fan, ARB comes ON and gives an indication "Mill Ready
for Start."
6. When "Mill Ready for Start," glows, ARB is ON, FD fan is ON and Air Interlocks ready. The
mill motor can be started manually.
7. When the mill is ON, ARC and timer T3 are energised.
8. After a time lapse of 10 minutes, the coal feeder starts.
Thus, the starting sequence is complete.
System Start= I:0/0 Auxiliary Relay AR= O:0/1
ID Fan ON/OFF= I:0/1 Auxiliary Relay ARA= O:0/2
Air Interlock= I:0/2 FD Fan Motor= O:0/3
Start Stop of Mill Motor= I:0/3 Auxiliary Relay ARE= O:0/4
Mill Motor ON= O:0/5
Auxiliary Relay ARC= O:0/6
Coal Feeder= O:0/7
Fig. below.
60
SNJB Unit 4
61
SNJB Unit 4
Example 4: Starting and Tripping Scheme of a FD Fan Motor
The starting sequence is as follows:
1. When the ID fan is turned ON, a timer is turned ON, which makes a 5 minutes time delay
close contact.
2. If the input damper is closed, the outlet damper is open and the ID fan starts, after a
lapse of 5 minutes, the FD fan motor starts.
The contrology of a FD fan motor trip is as follows:
1. If the ID fan trips, the FD fan trips immediately
2. If the outlet damper of the FD fan is closed, a timer comes ON. After 60 seconds, an
auxiliary relay is turned ON which energises a blinker to indicate “Outlet Damper Closed"
in the mimic panel.
3. If the situation is not taken care of, the FD fan trips after 5 minutes.
4. Similarly, if the inlet damper is closed, the blinker will start blinking after 60 seconds, as
an indication. It will continue to blink for 5 minutes, after which the fan trips.
The Inputs are: The Outputs are:

ID Fan Start = I:0/1 ID Fan Motor=O:0/1
ID Fan Stop= I:0/2 Auxiliary Relay AR= O:0/2
Inlet Damper= I:0/3 Closed=1 FD Fan Motor= O:0/3
Open=0 FD Fan Start= B3:0/11
Outlet Damper= I:0/4 Closed=1 FD Fan Trip= B3:0/12
Open=0
On the basis of the above inputs and outputs, the ladder diagram has been developed as shown
in Fig.
62
SNJB Unit 4
Example 5: In a simple chemical reactor, as shown in Fig. develop a ladder diagram to produce a
chemical by the reaction of two other chemicals at a specified temperature. The chemicals are
mixed together in a sealed vessel (the reactor), and the temperature of the reaction is controlled
by feeding hot or cold water through a jacket, which surrounds the vessel.
This program is an example of a composite control. Three term controller is used to control the
reaction terms and PLC is used for sequential control of events.
63
SNJB Unit 4
The sequence of operation is as follows:

1. Open valve A
2. Check the level of the chemical inside the vessel by monitoring the float switch 1. When
the correct amount of chemical I has been admitted, close valve A.
3. Start the stirrer. `
4. Open valve B in order to admit the second chemical.
5. When the correct amount of chemical 2 has been admitted, close valve B by monitoring
the float switch 2.
6. Switch on the three term controller and supply a set point so that the chemical mix
heats up to the required reaction temperature.
7. Monitor the reaction temperature. When it reaches the set point, start a timer to time
the duration of the reaction, (say, reaction time = 1 minute).
64
SNJB Unit 4
8. When the timer indicates that the reaction is complete, switch off the controller and
open the valve C to cool down the reactor contents. Switch off the stirrer.
9. Monitor the temperature. When the contents have cooled down, open valve E for 5
minutes, to remove the product from the reactor.
On the basis of the above conditions, the following inputs and outputs are specified.
Inputs: Outputs:
Start= I:0/1 Valve A= O:0/1
Stop= I:0/2 Valve B= O:0/2
FS1= I:0/3 Stirrer= O:0/3
FS2= I:0/4 Valve E= O:0/4
Temperature Set Point 1= I:0/5 Temperature Controller TC ON= O:0/5
Temperature Set Point 2= I:0/6 100% Open Cold Water Valve= O:0/6
fig.
65
SNJB Unit 4
Selection of PLC
As has been discussed in previously, PLCs are used in various systems with different objectives. On
the basis of specific requirements, PLCs of specific configurations are chosen.
Check List for Selection of a PLC
1. How much l/O is required?
2. What type of l/O is required? (Digital, digital and analog, DC, AC, relay etc.)
3. What type of control logic is required? (Simple, ON or OFF PID, data analysis etc.).
4. Is any special I/O required? (For flow metres, RTD, thermocouple etc.).
5. Are human - machine interfaces required?
6. What type of communication interface is required?
7. Is redundancy required? (What type of redundancy, just controller, redundant I/O,
redundant controller, communication and I/O etc.)
This check-list may be made more detailed, depending on the details in the specifications of
requirements of a PLC.
66
SNJB Unit 4
PLCs AND THE INTERNET
 The Internet, as anyone who hasn’t been living in a cave for the last few years knows, has
changed everything.
 Even PLCs, in their rush to get -connected to enterprise-wide information systems, have found
their place on the Web.
 Many PLC manufacturers are embedding Web servers into their equipment, even at the micro
and nano levels- According to Peter Cleaveland, Senior Technical Editor at Control Solutions,
"Not only does Web connectivity make it possible to monitor a control system from anywhere, it
also makes things like systems manuals-things that in the past have generally been misplaced,
locked up, or thrown out-available when needed."
 Of course, if a control system is to be connected to the Internet, the issue of security becomes
uppermost.
 Intruders must be kept at bay.
 A number of approaches have been developed to deal with this problem, SoftPLC being a more
interesting one.
 SoftPLC uses Java with its servlets as a solution. Such servlets are Java programs that run in a
Web server, tightly integrated with the Web server task.
 They can provide dynamic Web page content. As a result, only selected users have access to
real-time data.
 Watch for an expanded role for the Internet with regard to PLC connectivity and monitoring in
the years to come.
CELL CONTROL BY PLC NETWORKS
 A manufacturing cell is a group of automated programmable machine controls (programmable
controllers, robots, etc.) designed to work together to perform a complete manufacturing or
process-related task.
 The function of a cell controller is to coordinate and oversee the operation of the machine
controls within the cell through its communication and information-processing capabilities.
 Cell control can provide your company with the unprecedented opportunity to realize flexible
computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) by applying factory floor information in real-time.
 The result is improved plant efficiency and profit.
 A training and industrial work cell is shown in figure 24-5.
 The cell contains two CNC-controlled machines, a lathe and a milling machine.
 The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control.

67
SNJB Unit 4
 It applies to machine tools of all types, such as lathes and milling machines.
 The CNC designation indicates that a machine is controlled by computer, not manually or
electrically.
 The parts of this work cell are as follows:
68
SNJB Unit 4
1. A computer controlled conveyor
2. A CNC lathe
3. A transverse robot with PLC control to load and unload the lathe
4. A CNC milling machine
5. A pick-and-place (PP) robot with PLL control to load and unload the mill
6. A Selective-Compliance-Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) robot for drilling or small
assembly operations on the conveyor (right)
7. A master PLC to coordinate the conveyor and the other two PLCs
8. A computer-controlled Automatic Storage Rack System (ASRS) Automatic Warehouse
9. A computer program to keep track of the location of each part in the storage rack
10. A master computer to oversee the whole operation (CIM control station)
11. Safety devices and interlocks as required.
 A network for overall control for the cell in figure 24-5 is shown in figure 24-7.
69
SNJB Unit 4
 The network can be of different configurations, depending on the work cell sequence and the
complexity of manufacturing the part or parts.
 Three major forms of possible networks are shown in figure 24-6.
 Figure 24-6a is a simple star configuration in which all parts communicate directly and only with
the master control.
 Figure 24-6b is a "semistar" in which groups of devices communicate with the central control.
 Figure 24—6c is a commonly found bus type in which major machines and groups are connected
to a common bus.
70
SNJB Unit 4
 The advantage of c is that individual sections can communicate with each other without going
through the master computer.
 This gives more flexibility and faster communication times.
 The disadvantage of c is that programming-is more complicated with a common, shared bus.
 Bus time sharing involves programming for time intervals of bus time and is more expensive.
 Interlocks, safety switches, and other auxiliary devices are also involved in the cell.
 These devices are not shown in figure 24-5, and their connections are not shown in figure 24-6.
 An industrial work cell is shown in figure 24-7.
 This large work cell is part of a manufacturing operation to fabricate large computer cabinets.
 The equipment shown is a multi-station robotic fabrication work cell.
 In this work cell, two robots are utilized for final weld assembly of the computer cabinets.
 The robots have individual controllers.
 Their individual controllers are under the overall control of the cell master computer.
 Other cell equipment, such as the conveyors, is also under the control of the cell’s master
computer.
 The robot on the left performs spot welding.
 The other robot, on the right, subsequently performs arc (bead) welding on the cabinets.
 The cell is reprogrammable for different models of computer cabinets as they come into the cell
area.
 The network system (not shown) for this cell is quite large and involved.
71
SNJB Unit 4
IT Interface required for ERP, MES MIS

Numerous systems and techniques have gained popularity over time to assist operators,
supervisors and managers control and optimise the operations of their factories. Some of the
strategies that have evolved include CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing); JIT (Just In
Time); FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Systems); HMI (Human Machine Interfaces); MES
(Manufacturing Execution System); MRP (Material Requirements Planning); MRP II
(Manufacturing Resources Planning); ERP (Enterprise Resources Planning); and SCM
(Supply Chain Management).
Most of these strategies exist as comprehensive software applications running on networks of

computers - some with an array of supporting procedures. While they address different, but
sometimes overlapping requirements, an attribute they share is that they integrate two or
more traditionally independent functions of an organisation to improve efficiency, increase
quality and reduce costs. For example, CIM integrates the product design and production
planning functions with factory floor set-up, production control and monitoring. MRPII
integrates order entry, purchasing, scheduling, warehouse and production systems.
The components of factory management systems generally fall into one of the following
levels:
 Control System
 Supervisory Control
 MIS (Management Information System)
The objective of this topic is to introduce some of the technologies that are used to provide
factory integration and show how they are being used to improve production efficiency.
Control System Integration
Integration at the Control System level involves peer-to-peer transfer of information between
equipment such as PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), CNC machine tools, robots and
other controllers to allow efficient and reliable operation for process coordination, material
handling and activity synchronisation. It also provides interfaces to allow integration of the
Control System with the Supervisory Control and MIS levels.
72
SNJB Unit 4
MAP
One of the early developments to address integration at the Control System level was called
MAP (Manufacturing Automation Protocol). It is an open communication standard that was
initiated in 1980 by General Motors in the USA. At that stage, GM had over 40,000
intelligent devices on their factory floors with over 85% of them in isolated islands of
automation. GM estimated that communication and integration costs accounted for up to 50%
of Control System budgets.
MAP's strategy was to define one communication standard that all control systems vendors
would comply with, addressing all aspects of communication including physical/electrical
interfaces, network protocols, data format and syntax. Products began to appear in 1984 and a
number of successful systems were installed - mainly in the automotive industry.
Despite its aim of providing a single, standard communication interface, MAP has failed to
achieve wide spread popularity. It is quite complex and expensive and has suffered from a
lack of support from vendors. One of the problems for an organisation wanting to adopt MAP
is that there is no migration path for existing non-MAP equipment.
Fieldbus Networks
More recently, a number of new Fieldbus standards have been developed. These are high-
speed networks specifically designed for control system applications and peer-to-peer
communication at the Control System level. Some of these networks address specific control
system requirements such as intrinsically safe systems for hazardous environments, bus-
powered devices, fast machine control, and safety systems that require triple redundancy.
There are still integration problems if different standards are used by equipment within the
same site, but many control system vendors support a number of these standards so there is a
better chance of integrating equipment. An example of some of these standards are
summarised below:
Name Technology Developer

ARCNET Datapoint/SMC
AS-1 AS-I Consortium
ControlNet Allen- Bradley
DeviceNet Allen- Bradley
Foundation Fieldbus Foundation Fieldbus
73
SNJB Unit 4
IEC/ISA SP50 Fieldbus ISA & Foundation Fieldbus
INTERBUS-S Phoenix Contact
LonWorks Echolon Corp.
PROFIBUS DP/PA PTO
SS Honeywell
Seriplex APC, Inc.
WorldFIP WorldFIP
Ethernet
Faced with numerous proprietary and standard Fieldbus networks, many organisations are
selecting Ethernet for a wide range of applications on the factory floor. There are a number of
benefits in using Ethernet in areas beyond traditional business information networks. These
include its low cost, high reliability, ease of configuration and management and easy
connectivity to company intranets or the Internet.
This trend is also encouraged by some users' concerns that existing Fieldbus networks may
not provide enough bandwidth for current and future requirements. For example, the data
transfer rate of the existing H2 Foundation Fieldbus specification is 2.5 megabits per second
(Mbps). ControlNet is 5 Mbps and Profibus has a maximum transfer rate of 12 Mbps. As a
minimum, Ethernet has a transfer rate of 10 Mbps, with 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet rapidly
becoming a de facto standard and the Gigabit Ethernet specification to be released in 1998.
Unlike the Fieldbus networks, there is currently no standard "user layer" and Ethernet itself
doesn't define the format or interpretation of data transmitted. Therefore, it is generally not
possible to achieve peer-to-peer communication between different vendors' equipment by
simply connecting them to an Ethernet network. However, Ethernet's ability to easily
communicate with multiple devices and manage the traffic between control systems and
computers make it attractive to integrate the Control System with the Supervisory and MIS
levels of an organisation.
There are widespread concerns about Ethernet's lack of determinism (its ability to deliver
critical data within a given time) and limited redundancy that may prevent its widespread use
for peer-to-peer communication at the Control System level. These issues are now being
addressed by the IEEE 802.3 Standards Committees with new specifications for Redundant
Links and Message Prioritisation being released in 1997 and 1998 respectively.
OPC
74
SNJB Unit 4
To address the integration of control system devices with high level systems, a standard
called OPC (OLE - Object Linking and Embedding - for Process Control), has been under
development since 1995. Now under the control of the OPC Foundation, the objective of
OPC is to define an open, flexible, plug-and-play standard for the communication interface to
control system devices. Based on Microsoft's OLE and COM (Component Object Model)
technologies, OPC consists of a standard set of interfaces, properties and methods for use in
process control and manufacturing automation applications.
The benefit of OPC is that the 'client' system, whether it is an HMI system in the control
room or a reporting application on a manager's PC, only needs to understand one interface to
get data from any device. Previously, proprietary interfaces and applications were required
for each vendor's equipment. OPC exposes the data from any control system in the same way.
So any OPC client application can be connected to any vendor's OPC-compliant server in the
same way and expect the same behaviour from the server. Where Ethernet, for example,
standardises the communication channel between devices, OPC standardises the interface
presented by each device.
At this stage, OPC servers take the form of software components running on Microsoft
platforms that present the standard OPC interface to applications and communicate with
attached control system devices in their own proprietary communication standard. With the
reliance on Microsoft's OLE and COM technologies, an obvious limitation of OPC is multi-
vendor support in non-Microsoft computers at the management level. In these cases, an
option is to use a Microsoft Windows PC to provide a gateway to the factory floor for non-
Microsoft environments.
Factory Window
Factory Window is an integration technology for flexible manufacturing systems developed

by CSE Technology. It is a software based communication tool which allows a wide range of
devices used in factories to communicate with each other and with application software
running in host computers. Typically, this equipment consists of CNC machines, robots,
AGVs, automated warehouses, PLCs and other intelligent controllers.
Factory Window uses software called Drivers to communicate with each Control System in
its own native protocol. The Driver translates the messages from the Control System's
75
SNJB Unit 4
protocol to a common protocol based on the MMS standard, as used by MAP. This means
that the Drivers make the interface to all Control Systems appear the same - as if all Control
Systems were using MMS based standards for communication. This allows peer-to-peer
communication support in Factory Window, as well as vertical communication to application
software running in the same computer, or on other computers connected to a TCP/IP
network.
Factory Window runs on PCs, workstations and other host computers, allowing normally
incompatible systems to be seamlessly integrated
Supervisory Control Integration
The Supervisory Control level integrates three main areas:
 The Control System level

 The MIS level
The operators and managers who supervise production
In addition to other control functions performed, the Supervisory Control level acts as an
intermediate processing stage for control information transferred from the MIS level to the
Control System level and vice-versa. For example, production orders received from an MRP
system may be further processed at the Supervisory Control level to allocate specific factory
resources to each product and create a specific schedule for each production line or machine
in the factory. The supervisory control system may also monitor and record production
information on a real time basis, transferring summary information back to higher level
systems at the completion of an order or batch.
One of the most important functions of the Supervisory Control level is to integrate operators
and production management with the other control systems in the process. Computer based
interfaces are typically used to monitor the system, fine tune process parameters and issue
management commands during the production process.
Functions typically performed at the Supervisory Level include:
 Process monitoring and supervisory control
76
SNJB Unit 4
 Real-time product tracking
 Real-time schedule feedback
 Operator reports
 Resource planning
 Detailed scheduling and control
 Set-up details
 Production instructions
 Quality Systems
 Recipe management
The technologies used to integrate these systems with the Control System level were covered
in Part 1 of this article and include OPC (OLE for Process Control) and Ethernet. Integration
to the MIS level often involves services provided by the computer environment that the
Supervisory Control system runs on. These technologies include standards such as ODBC
(Open Database Connectivity), OLE, CORBA, COM and DCOM.
HMI / SCADA Software Systems
One of the most common forms of Supervisory Control systems are HMI (Human Machine
Interface) and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems. There are
literally hundreds of different PC based systems available. However, the more popular
systems include:
 The Fix and Fix Dynamics - Intellution

 Intouch - Wonderware
 Ci Tect - Citect
 Scan 3000 - Honeywell
77
SNJB Unit 4
The operator interfaces in these systems are diagrammatic representations of the process,
displayed on a computer monitor. They are dynamically updated with real-time data from the
Control System level, with animations and colour used to assist operators to quickly
understand the current status of the process.
The main features of these systems include:
 Object-oriented graphics
 Distributed, client/server architecture
 High performance communication with PLCs and other control systems
 On-Line configuration
 Alarming and alarm management
 Real-time and historical trending
 Simple recipe management
DCS (Distributed Control Systems)
The functions performed by a DCS are very similar to those of a PLC / HMI system. Part of
the reason for developing HMI and SCADA systems was to create a low cost equivalent to
DCS using PCs and PLCs.
The functions of the Control System level and Supervisory Control level are highly integrated
in DCS. Historically, the integration technologies between the Control System and
Supervisory levels were often proprietary to each DCS vendor and not readily accessible by
the end user or third parties. This has changed over time and DCS now generally support
standard field busses or Ethernet.
There are numerous arguments about the benefit of DCS over PLC/HMI systems and vice-
versa. For integration of the operator with the process, however, DCS perform a similar
function to HMI/SCADA systems discussed above.
Operator Display and Feedback Systems
The most common form of these systems are large LED displays, mounted in locations
visible by most staff in the factory. Systems CSE have been involved with consist of
"scoreboards" 3 metres wide by 1.8 metres high. The main part of the scoreboard has 8 lines
78
SNJB Unit 4
of data, 60 - 80 characters wide. A single scoreboard can be used in one factory, with
multiple scoreboards used where production, packaging and other processes are carried out in
different locations throughout the site.
The scoreboards can display information such as the planned schedule for the current shift,
with real-time updates of production completed and quantity still to finish. The software
driving the scoreboards is able to forecast what the current production should be, based on
standard production times, and displays the number of units behind or ahead of schedule.
Although the display area is limited, the scoreboard can cycle through multiple "pages" of
data, with additional management information and operator messages displayed periodically.
Scoreboards make the production process visible to all factory staff. Staff can monitor
schedules and other critical data and take immediate action when required.
POP (Point of Production) Terminals
These are like personal scoreboards, distributed at locations throughout the factory where
information must be displayed to the operator. In contrast to scoreboards, POP terminals can
also capture information at the point of production, either by operator entry, or directly from
the process. For information entered by operators, the alternative is generally to have
operators record information on paper forms for later processing. In some cases, POP
terminals are the only practical method of capturing subjective information.
POP Terminals can be dedicated mini data terminals or they can be based on small, panel
PCs with touch screen interfaces. They are generally connected with host computers running
management software using serial or Ethernet networks. PDA's (personal digital assistants)
running Windows CE are also beginning to gain popularity for these applications. The
availability of low cost, portable hardware, radio based networks and the ability to run
standard office applications such as spreadsheets, allow development of complex applications
at reasonable cost.
ID Systems
ID systems can be static, where a fixed amount of data is encoded and it is not changed.
Alternatively, some ID systems may be dynamic, where data is stored in non-volatile
79
SNJB Unit 4
memory on the ID device itself, allowing the data to be refreshed or supplemented at other
locations through the process.
Static ID systems generally encode a unique ID number or code in the ID device. An ID

reader connected to a Supervisory Control level computer is used to read the ID to reference
data stored in the computer associated with the ID. The data may be stored in a database or in
special purpose files (for example, for CAD data for set up purposes). On reading the ID, the
information in the computer is made available to display product specifications, set up
information or other order specific data.
In contrast, dynamic ID systems store much of this information in the ID device itself. The ID
readers may be independent of any supervisory computers and additional production history
information may also be stored at each workstation.
Static ID systems include conventional barcodes and newer 2 dimensional barcodes that can
store a larger volume of data in a smaller area than conventional barcodes. Small,
semiconductor based ID tags are also available, in either static or dynamic versions. These
are powered by the radio signal emitted from the ID reader and are becoming very robust and
inexpensive. An advantage ID tags have over barcode systems is they don't need to be
optically scanned and may simply pass by a reader in any orientation. This allows a larger
number of scans to be performed with little operator intervention.
MIS Integration
The desire to integrate the MIS level of an organisation with the other levels of its factory
management systems is driven by a vision of the globally competitive enterprise with all its
critical information available everywhere in an electronic form. The ultimate objective is the
ability to make operating decisions and implement them in real time on the basis of accurate,
real-time factory information and business conditions.
Systems at the MIS level such as enterprise requirements planning (ERP), manufacturing
execution systems (MES) and supply chain management (SCM) promise to increase
efficiency, reduce variability and ensure products are delivered on time. However, it all
depends on getting in touch with the process and providing the detailed information needed.
These systems need specific feedback from the plant for production costing, capacity
planning and production scheduling - and the information needs to be accurate and timely.
80
SNJB Unit 4
Therefore, for integration with the MIS level, communication technologies are not the only
issues that need to be addressed. In order to move away from complex customised integration
solutions at the MIS level, we also need a consistent definition of the functionality that exists
in each of the factory floor areas under its control.
SP88
SP88 is an example of a standard that meets this requirement for batch manufacturers in the
fine chemical, food and pharmaceutical industries. Started in 1990 by ISA, SP88 was
designed to provide consistent definitions, concepts and models for batch control systems. It
uses a modular framework and supports plants at varying levels of automation. Its ultimate
objective is to allow users to mix and match different vendors' equipment and software.
For example, Dow Corning in the USA developed an SP88-based model to automate batch,
semicontinuous and continuous processes. Using the model on a centrifugal compressor
system, two operators can now start up the system in 5 minutes, where as it used to take four
operators up to 8 hours before.
PC Based Batching Systems
Batching systems provide an "engine" to execute a batching process. They store the batch
process (procedures, order of steps, quantities) as a high level recipe and execute the recipe in
conjunction with simple control logic at the Control System level. Batching systems record
all the actions of the plant and operator. They also interact with higher level systems, such as
MRPII and ERP systems to send/receive data. In recent years, a number of PC based batching
systems have been released that operate in conjunction with HMI (human machine interface)
systems. These types of systems provide very effective integration between the MIS and
Supervisory Control layers. Examples of products include Visual Batch by Intellution and
InBatch by Wonderware.
Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES)
MES are information systems that reside on the plant floor, between the planning systems in
offices and direct industrial controls at the process itself. The functions they provide include:
 Manufacturing Process Modelling - production routings, Bills of Material, actual

material usage, yields and customer specifications
81
SNJB Unit 4
 Materials, Equipment and Labour Tracking - WIP and inventory status, machine
status, Time-In-State, machine task scheduling, repairs tracking
 Statistical Quality Management - Statistical process control, SPC charts and alarming,
associated test result records
 Engineering Document Management - Electronic retrieval and presentation of
documents
 Report Generation - Traceability, yield by operation, equipment downtime and usage,
production by machine, route and operator
MES needs to be customised or configured to suit the specific application or site.
Examples of systems available include InfoLink by Realtime Systems and InTrack by

Wonderware.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Integration
Most ERP systems provide interfaces to allow their system to communicate with factory floor
processes. For example, SAP R/3 defines an interface called PI-PCS. This provides a solution
for process manufacturers to unite SAP R/3 business software with real-time process control.
It is a standard, open interface enabling direct integration of the SAP R/3 PP-PI system
(Production Planning - Process Industries) with SCADA, HMI and DCS systems at the
Supervisory Control level. PP-PI provides a comprehensive suite of process planning tools to
manage resources, recipe and process management, as well as process planning and
production information management. The SCADA, HMI or DCS systems manage the
production process itself and transfer real-time process data back to SAP PP-PI. Therefore,
both planned and actual process data is made available to SAP for further processing.
Products that comply with the PI-PCS interface include Visual Flow by EnvisionIt,
Enterprise Link by Hewlett Packard, PI System by OSI Software and I/A by Foxboro.
Other products are available for ERP integration, one being Transaction Processor by ISE
Inc. It provides integration services for BPCS and PRISM systems and manages
communication between MRP systems and MES databases. It monitors plant floor activities
and issues transactions to the ERP systems, such as amount of product consumed, product
produced and material wasted.
82
SNJB Unit 4
Application Integration
Integration at the MIS level often involves services provided by the computer environment in
which the MIS software systems operate. Object-based software technologies to which many
of these software systems are migrating provide standard interfaces between different
applications and provide fewer integration problems.
Standards at this level include the Object Management Group (OMG) consortium's Common
Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA); Microsoft's Common Object Model (COM)
and distributed COM (DCOM), the foundation for its ActiveX and Visual Basic for
Applications (VBA) programming tools; or Sun Microsystems' Java. Object-based software
promises standards for the interfaces among software modules that will let users easily
integrate different packages without custom drivers or code.
Other products, such as Visual Flow by EnvisionIt Software also use software "objects" to
provide mechanisms for interfacing between a wide range of non-object based applications.
For example, they can be used to link any of the following with one or more of each other:
 Process Control and HMI Systems, such as Fix and InTouch

 Business applications such as MRP, ERP and Logistics
 Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS)
 Batch Control Systems
 Relational Database Management Systems such as Oracle
Conclusion
Due to the wide range of applications and systems that reside at the MIS level of an
organisation, there are a wide range of interface issues that need to be addressed. This article
has attempted to introduce some of the technologies available that are making this level of
integration more manageable.
In addition to technical issues, organisational issues also play a major role when integrating
the MIS level with the Supervisory and Control System levels. Control system engineers and
IT (Information Technology) professionals need to work together to implement these systems
because they generally don't have detailed knowledge of each other's domain. This can lead
83
SNJB Unit 4
to difficulties and misunderstanding - in some cases important technical requirements may
"fall between the cracks" at this gap in the hierarchy. While the tools to achieve integration at
the MIS level are constantly developing, management and coordination of the team
undertaking this work is also a significant issue that will effect the success of the completed
system.
84
SNJB Unit 4
Industrial automation - barcode scanner connectivity
As industrial automation continues to develop and make processes such as scanning,

packaging, shipping and assembly more efficient, must provide the connectivity required to
integrate crucial elements in the automation system. It should provide automated data
collection; comprehensive communications solution specifically designed for barcode
scanning. The system must be developed a custom enclosure containing Master and an
internal voltage converter to power the scanning system and convert ASCII serial data from
the barcode scanner to EtherNet/IP, PROFINET IO or Modbus TCP/IP (industrial network
protocols) for the end programmable logic controller (PLC). As seen in the diagram, the
enclosure has three ports, enabling an RS-232 serial connection, a 24VDC power supply
connection and an Ethernet connection. Twenty four volts of direct current power are
delivered into the enclosure; once inside the enclosure the standard 24VDC of power is
stepped down to five volts where +5VDC is wired into pin nine of the serial port, easily
powering the attached scanner. The Device Master industrial ethernet gateway is a flexible
85
SNJB Unit 4
power input of 5-30VDC thus allowing performance on the enclosure’s five volt circuit. This
serial power delivery eliminates the need to introduce an extra power supply for the barcode
scanner. The barcode scanner then sends information and process data back through the serial
connection to the Device Master, which routes the information over Ethernet (EtherNet/IP,
RROFINET IO or Modbus TCP/IP) to a PLC. This joint industrial hardened solution not only
enables the automation system, but the enclosure decreases necessary cabling and is
customizable upon customer request. Installation is easy; all that is required is the enclosure,
a 24VDC power supply, Ethernet cabling, Device Master configuration and scanner
connection.
A highly advanced raw/ASCII device interface functionality simplifies PLC programming

and ensures robust operation. These features greatly simplify connecting devices such as
barcode scanners, RFID readers; weigh scales, vision systems, printers, encoders and sensors
to PLCs.
86

Unit 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SNJB Unit 4

Programmable Logical Controllers (PLC)

1. Survive in an industrial environment,

According to NEMA (National Electrical Manufacture’s Association ,USA),the definition of

Block Diagram of a PLC:

Fig. Basic Parts of PLC

1. Executions of application program

 X1 = Input or output designation fixed by hardware (i/p = 1, o/p = 0)

 Number of logical inputs and outputs.

1. Understand the process to be controlled

The following points can be noted from the flow chart:

The symbol for PLC output is given as

Fig. Symbol for PLC output

Fig. Program Structure

Each rung is a program statement. A program statement consists of a condition or conditions

The Boolean expression is written as: Y = A. B

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of OR Gate

The Boolean expression is written as: Y = A+ B

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of OR Gate

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NOT Gate

Equivalent Ladder Diagram of XOR Gate

For an XOR gate, the Boolean expression is: Y  AB  AB .

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of XOR Gate

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NAND Gate

Equivalent Ladder diagram of NOR Gate

Fig. Equivalent Logic Diagram of NAND Gate

Some Practical Examples

The inputs are

Explaination of Ladder Diagram:

The inputs are

Start Push Button I1

The ladder diagram is shown in Fig.

Problem 3: A bi-directional movable arm is shown in Fig. Develop a ladder diagram to

The inputs are

Start Push Button I1

PLC Timers and Counters

Definition and Classification of a Timer

Characteristics of a PLC Timer

The schematic diagram of a function block PLC timer is shown in Fig.

Resetting - Retentive and Non-retentive

Classification of a PLC Timer

ON-Delay and OFF-Delay Timers

The inputs are

The inputs are

The inputs are

The outputs are

Lane 1 Green Yl Lane 3 Green Y7

Operation of a PLC Counter

a. Up Counter (CTU) b. Down Counter (CTD)

Count Down (CTD)

The output can then be expressed as:

Then the logic for the desired operation can be written as

Problem: Develop a ladder diagram to fulfil the following conditions in a MCC:

Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1; M2=O:0/2; M3=O:0/3; System=O:0/4

Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1; M2=O:0/2; M3=O:0/3; System=O:0/4

Start=I:0/1 M1=O:0/1; M2=O:0/2; M3=O:0/3; System=O:0/4

Start=I:0/1 Light 1=O:0/1; Light 2=O:0/2

Is the number of program cycle.

Special Input Modules

Table below shows the specifications of different types of thermocouples.

High-speed Encoder Input Module

The Inputs are: The Outputs are:

The sequence of operation is as follows: