Science

Contributors: ATOM
Democritus – discovered the atom in 400 B.C.E, he introduced the idea of the atom being the basic
building blocks of matter. He called the atom after the Greek word “Atomos” which means indivisible
John Dalton –In 1800, the English chemist, brought back Democritus’ idea of the atom. He described the
atom as a “solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, moveable particle(s)”

Atom molecule
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that A molecule id a particle consisting of two or more
has all the properties of the element. atoms combined together

Most atoms have the ability to combine with other It is electrically neutral
atoms
It is the smallest particle of an element or
The size of an atom is measured in angstrom compound

Diffusion

 Diffusion is the process by which particles of one substance spread out through the particles of
another substance

state solid liquid gas

Closeness of particles Very close close Far apart
Arrangement of Regular pattern Randomly arranged Randomly arranged
particles (uniform)
Movement of particles Moves through Changes position Move freely
vibration

Solid:

 Have a fixed shape, and volume.

 Cannot flow
 Connot be easily compressed
Liquid

 Does not have a fixed shape, but has fixed volume

 Can flow and take shape of any container
 Cannot be easily compressed
Gas

 Have no fixed shape nor fixed volume

 Can flow and fill their container
 Can be compressed
Phase Change
1. Melting (Solid to Liquid):
 Melting is the phase change from a solid to a liquid.
 It occurs when the temperature of a solid substance increases to its melting point.
 At the melting point, the intermolecular forces holding the solid together weaken, allowing the
particles to overcome their fixed positions and move more freely, resulting in the formation of a
liquid.
 The melting point is a characteristic property of each substance and remains constant under
constant pressure.
2. Freezing (Liquid to Solid):
 Freezing is the phase change from a liquid to a solid.
 It occurs when the temperature of a liquid substance decreases to its freezing point.
 At the freezing point, the particles lose energy, and the intermolecular forces become stronger,
causing the particles to arrange themselves into a fixed crystalline structure characteristic of the
solid phase.
 Like the melting point, the freezing point is also a characteristic property of a substance.
3. Vaporization (Liquid to Gas):
 Vaporization is the phase change from a liquid to a gas and includes two processes: evaporation
and boiling.
 Evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid when its molecules gain enough kinetic energy to
escape into the gas phase. It can occur at any temperature, but it increases with temperature.
 Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid that occurs when its temperature reaches the boiling
point. At this point, bubbles of vapor form throughout the liquid.
 The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
atmospheric pressure. Like melting and freezing points, the boiling point is a characteristic
property of a substance.
4. Condensation (Gas to Liquid):
 Condensation is the phase change from a gas to a liquid.
 It occurs when a gas cools down and loses energy, causing its particles to lose kinetic energy and
come closer together.
 When the gas particles come close enough, the intermolecular forces become strong enough to
hold them together in a liquid phase.
 Dew forming on grass in the morning or water droplets on the outside of a cold drink are
examples of condensation.
5. Sublimation (Solid to Gas):
 Sublimation is the phase change from a solid directly to a gas without passing through the liquid
phase.
 It occurs when the vapor pressure of the solid exceeds atmospheric pressure at a certain
temperature.
 Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimes directly into carbon dioxide gas without melting.
 Sublimation is also observed in the case of mothballs, certain air fresheners, and the process of
freeze-drying.
6. Deposition (Gas to Solid)

 When the gaseous substances get deposited (usually as crystals) by the intermediate liquid state

Atomic Structure:
 Atoms: Basic units of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
 Neutrons: Neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom.
 Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus in electron shells.
 Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom.
 Mass number: Sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
 Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Periodic Table:
 Groups: Vertical columns on the periodic table; elements within the same group share similar
properties.
 Periods: Horizontal rows on the periodic table; elements within the same period have increasing
atomic numbers.
 Metals, Non-metals, Metalloids: Classification of elements based on their properties.
 Valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom; determine an element's chemical
properties.
 Chemical symbols: Abbreviations used to represent elements on the periodic table.
Subatomic particles – William Crooke
greatest scientist of the Victorian era
a British Physicist who was able to discover that an atom or each of the atoms is made u of the same
subatomic particles
Electrons – J.J Thompson
the electron is a negatively charged particle that spins around the outside of the nucleus
Proton - Ernest Rutherford
Discovered on 1900’s, his research resulted in a nuclear reaction which led to the first ‘splitting’ of the
atom, where he discovered protons based on the Greek word “Protes” which means first.
Neutron – James Chadwick
In may 1932, he announced that the core (nucleus) also contained an uncharged particle which he called
the neutron

Subatomic charge Mass in grams Location in the weight

particle atom
Electron e- negative 9,109 x 10^-28 Lightest
Proton p+ positive 1.672 x 10^-24 Middle weight
Neutron n0 No charge 1.678 x 10^24 heaviest

When two or more electrons are stripped away, that determines the charge of the atom.
Like charges repel each other
Opposite charges attract each other
A charged object will attract a neutral particle (object)

Ways of charging
Friction-rubbing
Contact – charged objects touch each other, the charge is transferred from one to the other
Induction – when an object is brought near but does not touch a neutral one
Contributors
Thales of miletus – observed that when rubbing a piece of amber which came from soft wood resin,
could attract pieces of fiber cloth
William gilbert – made use of different materials in experimenting on the effects of friction.
Benjamin franklin – was famous for his kite-key and lightning experiment wherein he flew a kite
with a metal key tied to it.
Charles coulomb – explained the relationship between the magnitude of charges and the distance
between charged objects mathematically.

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Thomson model
plum pudding model discovered in 1904

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Positive kinemenems

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