Causal and correlation diffrence

Goal:
Causal Research: Seeks to establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating
an independent variable to observe its impact on a dependent variable.
Correlational Research: Aims to identify associations or relationships between
variables but doesn't establish causation.

Manipulation:

Causal Research: Involves intentional manipulation of an independent variable to

observe its impact on the dependent variable.
Correlational Research: Observes and measures variables without intentionally
manipulating them.

Causation:
Causal Research: Strives to prove causation by demonstrating that changes in the
independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable.
Correlational Research: Only identifies associations or correlations between
variables; it cannot prove causation.

Control:
Causal Research: Requires rigorous control over extraneous variables to establish
causation.
Correlational Research: Focuses on measuring and assessing the strength and
direction of associations between variables.

Data Collection:
Causal Research: Often involves experiments with random assignment,
manipulation, and control groups.
correlational Research: Uses observational or survey methods to gather data on
variables of interest.

Examples:
Causal Research: Clinical trials testing the efficacy of a new drug, where one group
receives the drug (independent variable), and another group doesn't, measuring
health outcomes (dependent variable).
Correlational Research: Studying the relationship between exercise frequency and
heart health by collecting data on people's exercise habits and heart health markers.
Qualitative and quantitative

Nature of Data:

• Qualitative Research: Collects non-numerical data (e.g., text, images) to understand

the "how" and "why" of a phenomenon.
• Quantitative Research: Gathers numerical data (e.g., survey responses) to measure
and quantify phenomena and test hypotheses.

Research Goals:

• Qualitative Research: Aims to uncover underlying meanings and motives, focusing on

in-depth understanding.
• Quantitative Research: Seeks to measure, quantify, and establish relationships
through numerical analysis and statistical testing.

Sample Size:

• Qualitative Research: Typically uses smaller sample sizes for in-depth insights, often
involving a few participants.
• Quantitative Research: Involves larger sample sizes to ensure statistical significance
and generalizability to a population.

Data Collection Methods:

• Qualitative Research: Utilizes methods like interviews, observations, and content

analysis to gather rich, descriptive data.
• Quantitative Research: Relies on structured data collection methods such as surveys,
experiments, and statistical records.

Analysis:

• Qualitative Research: Analyzes data using methods like thematic analysis or

grounded theory to identify patterns and themes.
• Quantitative Research: Employs statistical techniques like regression, t-tests, and chi-
square tests for objective analysis.

Generalizability:

• Qualitative Research: Findings are often context-specific and not easily generalizable
to larger populations.
• Quantitative Research: Aims for generalizability, allowing findings to be applied to
larger populations with confidence.

Subjectivity vs. Objectivity:

 • Qualitative Research: Researcher subjectivity and interpretation play a significant
role.
• Quantitative Research: Researchers strive for objectivity, minimizing their role in
data analysis.

Causal comparative research is a type of quasi

Causal-comparative research, also known as "ex post facto" research, is a non-
experimental research design that aims to explore potential cause-and-effect
relationships by examining pre-existing differences between groups. It does not
involve manipulation of variables, as experimental research does. Here are types,
characteristics, and examples of causal-comparative research:

Types of Causal-Comparative Research:

1. Retrospective Comparative Research:

• Characteristics: Compares groups that have experienced different
conditions or events in the past.
• Example: Studying the impact of different parenting styles on adult
attachment by comparing the attachment styles of adults raised by
authoritative vs. permissive parents.
2. Prospective Comparative Research:
• Characteristics: Compares groups that are currently exposed to
different conditions or treatments.
• Example: Investigating the impact of two different teaching methods
on student achievement by comparing the test scores of students in
two different classrooms.

Characteristics of Causal-Comparative Research:

1. No Manipulation: Variables are not manipulated by the researcher; they are

observed as they naturally exist.
2. Retrospective Approach: Typically focuses on past data or conditions that
cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons.
3. Group Comparison: Involves comparing groups that have been exposed to
different conditions, treatments, or experiences.
4. Causality Inference: Aims to draw conclusions about causal relationships, but
it cannot establish causation definitively due to the lack of experimental
control.

Examples:

1. Depression and Childhood Trauma: Researchers compare the levels of

depression in adults who experienced childhood trauma with those who did
 not, aiming to determine if there is a causal link between childhood trauma
and adult depression.

Explanation:

Causal-comparative research is used when conducting true experiments with random

assignment and manipulation of variables is either impossible or unethical. It helps
researchers investigate potential causal relationships by analyzing existing data and
comparing groups that have been exposed to different conditions. While it doesn't
provide the level of control and causation that experimental research does, it can
offer valuable insights into associations and potential causal factors in a more
naturalistic context. Researchers use statistical analysis to draw conclusions about the
likelihood of a causal relationship between variables based on observed differences
between groups

There is no random assignment in this research have less internal validity due ti lac
of random assignment and control of variable historg effecfs

Has low external validity because of random assignment and the finding are based
on specific groups which are difficult to generalize to lrger populations

Strengths:

1. Naturalistic Data: It allows researchers to study phenomena in real-world,

natural settings, which can provide insights into how variables operate outside
of controlled laboratory conditions.
2. Ethical Advantages: In cases where manipulating variables would be
unethical or impossible, causal-comparative research offers an ethical
alternative. Researchers can explore cause-and-effect relationships without
directly intervening.
3. Historical Context: It is valuable for studying the effects of historical or
naturally occurring events on different groups. For example, understanding
how a policy change affects various demographic groups over time.
4. Complex Relationships: Suitable for investigating complex relationships
where it is difficult to isolate a single independent variable for experimental
manipulation.

Limitations:

1. Lack of Causality: While it aims to infer causation, it cannot establish causality

as definitively as experimental research due to the lack of random assignment
 and control over independent variables. Alternative explanations for observed
differences can't always be ruled out.
2. Confounding Variables: Pre-existing differences between groups may
confound the results. Researchers must carefully control for, or statistically
account for, these differences to draw valid conclusions.
3. Limited Generalizability: Findings may not be easily generalizable to broader
populations or settings, as groups are often specific to the study's context.
4. Bias and Subjectivity: Researchers' subjectivity and biases can affect data
collection, analysis, and interpretation, especially in the absence of
experimental controls.
5. Data Quality: The quality of data collected can vary depending on the
sources, making it crucial to ensure the reliability and validity of
measurements.
6. Difficulty in Replication: Because it often involves unique historical or
naturally occurring events, replicating causal-comparative studies can be
challengin

Exploratory and descriptive research

Purpose:

• Descriptive Research: Describes what's happening or what exists. It's like

taking a snapshot of a situation.
• Exploratory Research: Explores to understand how and why things happen.
It's like asking questions to dig deeper.

Data Collection:

• Descriptive Research: Uses structured methods and predefined questions,

like filling out a form.
• Exploratory Research: Uses more open-ended methods, like having a
conversation.

Analysis:

• Descriptive Research: Looks at data and tells you what it shows, like
summarizing numbers.
• Exploratory Research: Digs into data to discover new ideas and understand
things better, like exploring a mystery.

Hypotheses:

• Descriptive Research: Doesn't test specific ideas or guesses.

 • Exploratory Research: Creates ideas or guesses for future research.

Examples:

• Descriptive Research: Counts how many people like a new product.

• Exploratory Research: Talks to people to figure out why they like or don't like
a new product.

Descriptive Research:

Advantages:

1. Clarity and Objectivity: It provides a clear and objective picture of what's

happening, making it useful for summarizing and reporting data.
2. Large-Scale Analysis: Well-suited for large-scale data collection and analysis,
making it applicable in surveys or census studies.
3. Comparison and Trend Analysis: Allows for comparisons between different
groups and the analysis of trends over time.
4. Useful in Decision-Making: Findings from descriptive research can inform
decision-making and policy planning.

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of Depth: It may lack the depth and insight into the "how" and "why" of
a phenomenon. It doesn't explain causation.
2. Potential for Bias: Data collection may be influenced by biases in questions
or participant responses.
3. Limited Exploration: It may not address underlying issues or complexities, as
it focuses on surface-level observations.
4. Generalization Challenges: Findings may not always be applicable to other
contexts, populations, or times.

Exploratory Research:

Advantages:

1. Generating New Ideas: It's excellent for generating new ideas, hypotheses,
and insights, especially in areas with limited prior knowledge.
2. Flexible Data Collection: Utilizes open-ended methods, allowing researchers
to adapt and explore emerging themes.
 3. Qualitative Understanding: Provides a qualitative understanding of complex
issues, helping to uncover hidden patterns.
4. Useful in Preliminary Stages: Valuable in the early stages of research to
shape more focused studies.

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of Generalizability: Findings may not easily generalize to broader

populations or settings due to the limited sample sizes and open-ended
methods.
2. Time-Consuming: It can be time-consuming and resource-intensive due to
in-depth data collection and analysis.
3. Subjectivity: Results can be influenced by the researcher's interpretations and
biases.
4. Limited Quantification: Difficult to quantify findings, which can make it
challenging to measure and compare results objectively.

Advantages:

1. Causation: Experimental research is the gold standard for establishing cause-

and-effect relationships. By manipulating variables, researchers can
confidently attribute changes in the dependent variable to the independent
variable.
2. Control: It offers a high degree of control over extraneous variables.
Researchers can carefully design experiments to isolate the effects of specific
variables, enhancing the internal validity of the study.
3. Replicability: Experimental studies are highly replicable. If conducted
rigorously, they can be replicated by other researchers to verify the findings.
4. Quantitative Data: Experiments often yield quantitative data, making it easier
to analyze statistically and draw objective conclusions.
5. Hypothesis Testing: Experimental research allows researchers to test specific
hypotheses and theories, contributing to scientific knowledge.

Disadvantages:

1. Ethical Constraints: Some experiments involve ethical concerns, especially

when dealing with human subjects. Researchers must follow strict ethical
guidelines.
 2. Limited Realism: In some cases, the controlled nature of experiments may
limit their real-world applicability. Findings may not always generalize to
natural settings.
3. Resource-Intensive: Conducting experiments can be resource-intensive in
terms of time, equipment, and personnel, making them less practical for
certain research questions.
4. Subject to Hawthorne Effect: Participants' awareness of being in an
experiment can lead to changes in their behavior, known as the Hawthorne
effect, potentially affecting the study's external validity.
5. Restricted Scope: Experiments often focus on a narrow scope and may not
address complex, real-world phenomena comprehensively.

Data Collection:

• Cross-Sectional Research:
• Design: Collects data from a single point in time.
• Time Frame: Involves a relatively shorter and one-time data collection
process.
• Longitudinal Research:
• Design: Collects data at multiple time points over an extended period.
• Time Frame: Requires a longer time commitment for data collection
and follow-ups.

Purpose:

• Cross-Sectional Research:
• Objective: Examines variables or conditions at a specific moment,
looking at their relationships.
• Examples: Opinion polls, market research, large-scale surveys.
• Longitudinal Research:
• Objective: Tracks changes or developments over time, allowing for the
study of trends, growth, and causality.
• Examples: Cohort studies, tracking individual or group changes over
years.

Data Analysis:

• Cross-Sectional Research:
 • Cross-Sectional Analysis: Involves examining data collected at a single
time point, often focusing on associations and patterns.
• Longitudinal Research:
• Longitudinal Analysis: Requires analyzing data collected at multiple
time points to understand changes, stability, and causality over time.

Advantages:

• Cross-Sectional Research:
• Efficiency: Quick and cost-effective data collection.
• Broad Scope: Provides insights into a wide range of variables or
conditions.
• Longitudinal Research:
• Temporal Insight: Offers a deep understanding of how variables
change and interact over time.
• Causality: Enables the study of causality and long-term effects.

Disadvantages:

• Cross-Sectional Research:
• Lack of Temporal Insight: Cannot show changes or developments
over time.
• Limited to Associations: Limited in explaining causal relationships.
• Longitudinal Research:
• Resource-Intensive: Requires more time and resources due to data
collection over an extended period.
• Participant Attrition: Faces challenges related to maintaining
participant involvement and data quality over time.