UNIT 1 - Student Edition

7/21/2016
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
TO NETWORKING
Prepared by : Zuraiti Bt Che Amat
Outcomes 1
By the end of this subtopic, student should be
able to :
Know what is networking
Advantages of computer network
Explain common element in client server
network
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1.1 COMPUTER NETWORK
What is computer network?
A network is two or more

computers connected to each
other so that they can exchange
information, such as email
messages or documents or share
resources, such as disk storage.
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Example of simple network computer
1.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKED

COMPUTING
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•ALLOWS FILE SHARING AND REMOTE FILE ACCESS.

•A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network
can easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is
authorized to do so. This saves him/her the hassle of carrying a
1 storage device every time data needs to be transported from one
system to another. Further, a central database means that anyone on
that network can access a file and/or update it. If files are stored on
a server and all of its clients share that storage capacity, then it
becomes easier to make a file available to multiple users.
•RESOURCE SHARING
•For example, if there are twelve employees in an organization,
each having their own computer, they will require twelve modems
and twelve printers if they want to use the resources at the same
2 time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a cheaper
alternative by the provision of resource sharing. All the computers
can be interconnected using a network, and just one modem and
printer can efficiently provide the services to all twelve users.
•INEXPENSIVE SET-UP
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files
mean reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means
3 reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software can be
installed only once on the server and made available across all
connected computers at once. This saves the expense of buying and
installing the same software as many times for as many users.
•FLEXIBLE HANDLING
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and
access his files. This offers flexibility to the user as to where he
should be during the course of his routine. A network also allows
the network administrator to choose which user on the network
has what specific permissions to handle a file. For example, the
4 network administrator can allot different permissions to User A
and User B for File XYZ. According to these permissions, User A
can read and modify File XYZ, but User B cannot modify the file.
The permission set for User B is read-only. This offers immense
flexibility against unwarranted access to important data.
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•INCREASED STORAGE CAPACITY

•Since there is more than one computer on a network
which can easily share files, the issue of storage
capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A standalone
5 computer might fall short of storage memory, but
when many computers are on a network, the
memory of different computers can be used in such a
case. One can also design a storage server on the
network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
Self Reflection
1. What is computer network?

2. Draw a simple network.
3. Give advantages of computer networks.
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1.1.2 COMMON ELEMENT IN

CLIENT SERVER NETWORKING
Common element in CS networking

Client
transmission
media. Server
topology workstation
element
connectivity network
device interface card
network operating
backbone,
system
segment node,
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Elements in client server networking

1. Client
A computer on the network that requests resources or services from
another computer on a network.
2. Server
A computer on the network that manages shared resources. Servers
usually have more processing power, memory, and hard disk space
than clients. They run network operating software that can manage
not only data, but also users, groups, security, and applications on
the network.
3. Workstation
A computer that runs a desktop operating system
and connects to a network.
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4. NIC
The device inside the computer that connect a
computer to the network media.
5. NOS (Network Operating System)

The software that run on a server and enables the server to
manage data, users, group, security application and other
networking function.
Examples of popular network operating systems include

various forms of UNIX and Linux, Microsoft Windows
Server 2003 or Server 2008, and Mac OS X Server.
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6. Node
A computer or other device connected to a
network, which has a unique address and is capable
of sending or receiving data.
7. Segment
A part of network. Usually a segment is composed
of a group of nodes that use the same
communications channel for all their traffic.
8. Backbone
The part of a network to which segments and significant
shared devices connect. A backbone is sometimes referred
to as “a network of network” because its role in
interconnecting smaller parts of LAN or WAN.
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9. Connectivity Device
A specialized device that allow multiple networks
or multiple parts of the networks to connect and
exchange data.
10. Topology
The physical layout of a computer networks.
11. Transmission Media

The means through which data is transmitted and
received.
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Activity 1 : Differentiate between Workstation

and Client
Activity 2 : Differentiate between Server,

Workstation and Desktop
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NETWORKING STANDARDS
Outcomes 2
By the end of this subtopic, student should
be able to :
Explain 7 networking standard
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Why “standard” are important?

Standards are documented agreements containing technical
1 specifications or other precise criteria that stipulate how a particular
product or service should be designed or performed.
2 Many different industries use standards to ensure that products,

processes, and services suit their purposes.
Because of the wide variety of hardware and software in use today,

3 standards are especially important in the world of networking.
Without standards, it would be very difficult to design a network because

4 you could not be certain that software or hardware from different
manufacturers would work together.
ISO
IEEE ITU
EIA &
ISOC
TIA
7 IANA &
ANSI NETWORKING
STANDARDS ICANN
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ANSI
 ANSI : American National Standards Institute.
 As the voice of the U.S. standards and conformity
assessment system, the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) empowers its members and constituents
to strengthen the U.S. marketplace position in the global
economy while helping to assure the safety and health of
consumers and the protection of the environment.
 The Institute oversees the creation, promulgation and use
of thousands of norms and guidelines that directly impact
businesses in nearly every sector: from acoustical devices
to construction equipment, from dairy and livestock
production to energy distribution, and many more.
 ANSI is also actively engaged in accreditation - assessing
the competence of organizations determining conformance
to standards. Prepared by : Zuraiti Bt Che Amat
EIA & TIA

 EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) is a trade organization
composed of representatives from electronics manufacturing firms
across the United States.
 EIA not only sets standards for its members, but also helps write
ANSI standards and lobbies for legislation favorable to the growth
of the computer and electronics industries.
 In 1988, one of the EIA’s subgroups merged with the former
United States Telecommunications Suppliers Association (USTSA)
to form TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association).
 TIA focuses on standards for information technology, wireless,
satellite, fiber optics, and telephone equipment.
 Both TIA and EIA set standards, lobby governments and industry,
and sponsor conferences, exhibitions, and forums in their areas of
interest.
 Probably the best known standards to come from the TIA/EIA
alliance are its guidelines for how network cable should be
installed in commercial buildings, known as the “TIA/EIA 568-B
Series.”.
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IEEE
 IEEE : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 Goals are to promote development and education in the electrical
engineering and computer science fields.
 To this end, IEEE hosts numerous symposia, conferences, and local
chapter meetings and publishes papers designed to educate members
on technological advances.
 It also maintains a standards board that establishes its own standards
for the electronics and computer industries and contributes to the
work of other standards-setting bodies, such as ANSI.
 IEEE technical papers and standards are highly respected in the
networking profession.
ISO
 ISO : International Organization for Standardization
 headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland,
 is a collection of standards organizations representing 157
countries.
 ISO’s goal is to establish international technological standards to
facilitate global exchange of information and barrier free trade.
 ISO’s authority is not limited to the information-processing and
communications industries. It also applies to the fields of textiles,
packaging, distribution of goods, energy production and
utilization, shipbuilding, and banking and financial services.
 The universal agreements on screw threads, bank cards, and even
the names for currencies are all products of ISO’s work.
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ITU
 ITU : International Telecommunication Union
 Specialized United Nations agency that regulates international
telecommunications, including radio and TV frequencies, satellite and
telephony specifications, networking infrastructure, and tariffs
applied to global communications.
 It also provides developing countries with technical expertise and
equipment to advance those nations’ technological bases.
 However, the ITU is deeply involved with the implementation of
worldwide Internet services. As in other areas, the ITU cooperates
with several different standards organizations, such as ISOC
(discussed next), to develop these standards.
ISOC
 ISOC : Internet Society
 founded in 1992
 is a professional membership society that helps to establish
technical standards for the Internet.
 Some current ISOC concerns include the rapid growth of the
Internet and keeping it accessible, information security, and the
need for stable addressing services and open standards across the
Internet.
 ISOC’s membership consists of thousands of Internet professionals
and companies from 90 chapters around the world.
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IANA & ICANN

 In early Internet history, a nonprofit group called the IANA
(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) kept records of available
and reserved IP addresses and determined how addresses were
doled out.
 Starting in 1997, IANA coordinated its efforts with three RIRs
(Regional Internet Registries): ARIN (American Registry for
Internet Numbers), APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information
Centre), and RIPE (Réseaux IP Européens).
 An RIR is a not-for-profit agency that manages the distribution of
IP addresses to private and public entities. In the late 1990s,
theUnited States Department of Commerce (DOC), which
funded IANA, decided to overhaul IP addressing and domain name
management. The DOC recommended the formation of ICANN
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), a
private, nonprofit corporation.
 ICANN is now ultimately responsible for IP addressing and
domain name management. Prepared by : Zuraiti Bt Che Amat
 Individuals and businesses do not typically obtain IP addresses

directly from an RIR or IANA. Instead, they lease a group of
addresses from their ISP (Internet service provider), a business
that provides organizations and individuals with access to the
Internet and often, other services, such as e-mail and Web hosting.
 An ISP, in turn, arranges with its RIR for the right to use certain
IP addresses on its network. The RIR obtains its right to dole out
those addresses from ICANN.
 In addition, the RIR coordinates with IANA to ensure that the
addresses are associated with devices connected to the ISP’s
network.
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1.3 TYPES OF NETWORKS AND

CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS
Outcomes 3
By the end of this subtopic, student should be

able to :
Differentiate peer to peer network and client
server network
Differentiate LAN, MAN & WAN
Distinguish bus, ring, star, mesh and hybrid
topologies
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1.3 Various classification of network

Peer-to-
Peer
Client
WAN
Server
MAN LAN
1.3.1 Peer-to-peer network
Can be minimum 2
computer
Can be up to 6 computer
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Characteristics of Peer-to-peer networks

1. The simplest peer-to-peer network consists of two directly
connected computers using a wired or wireless connection.
2. Multiple PCs can also be connected to create a larger peer-

to-peer network but this requires a network device, such as a
hub, to interconnect the computers.
3. By default, no computer on a peer to peer has

more authority than another
4. However, each computer can be configured to
share only some of its resources and prevent access to
other resources.
Advantages
• No need for a network administrator.
1
• Network is fast and easy to maintain.

2.
• Less expensive to set up and maintain. This fact

makes them suitable for environments in which
3. saving money is critical.
• Each computer can make backup copies of its data to
4. other computers for security.
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Disadvantages
•The main disadvantage is that the performance of a host can be
1. slowed down if it is acting as both a client and a server at the same
time.
•They are not very flexible. As a peer-to-peer network grows larger,

adding or changing significant elements of the network may be
2.
difficult.
•They are also not necessarily secure. Meaning that in simple
installations, data and other resources shared by network users can
3.
be easily discovered and used by unauthorized people.
•They are not practical for connecting more than a handful of
4. computers, because they do not always centralize resources.
1.3.2 Client/server network
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Characteristics of Client/server network
1. Another way of designing a network is to use a central computer, known as a server, to

facilitate communication and resource sharing between other computers on the network,
which are known as clients. Clients usually take the form of personal computers, also
known as workstations.
2. A network that uses a server to enable clients to share data, data storage space, and
devices is known as a client/server network. (The term client/server architecture is
sometimes used to refer to the design of a network in which clients rely on servers for
resource sharing and processing.)
3. Every computer on a client/server network acts as a client or a server. (It is possible,

but uncommon, for some computers to act as both.)
Continue
4.Clients on a network can still run applications from and save data to their local
hard disk. But by connecting to a server, they also have the option of using shared
applications, data, and devices.
5. Clients on a client/server network do not share their resources directly with

each other, but rather use the server as an intermediary. Clients and servers
communicate through connectivity devices such as switches or routers.
6.Usually, servers have more memory, processing, and storage capacity than
clients. They may even be equipped with special hardware designed to provide
network management functions beyond that provided by the network operating
system.
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Advantages
• User logon accounts and passwords for anyone on a server-
1 based network can be assigned in one place.
• Access to multiple shared resources (such as data files or printers) can

2. be centrally granted to a single user or groups of users.
• Problems on the network can be monitored, diagnosed, and

3. often fixed from one location.
• Servers are optimized to handle heavy processing loads and

dedicated to handling requests from clients, enabling faster
4.
response time.
• Can connect more than a handful of computers on a network

5. because of their efficient processing and larger disk storage
Disadvantages
• Congestion in Network. Too many requests from the
clients may lead to congestion. Overload can lead to
1 breaking-down of servers.
• It is very expensive to install and manage this type of

2. computing in term of cost.
• Need professional IT people to maintain the servers and

3. other technical details of network.
• If the server fails, the whole network goes down. Also, if you
4. are downloading a file from server and it gets abandoned due
to some error, download stops altogether.
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Activity 3 : Identify if the description is

belong to a server, a client, or both.
Activity 4 : Identify if the computer acting as

a server, a client, or both for each scenario.
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Activity 5 : Identify the advantages and

advantages of peer to peer network
1.3.3 Local Area Network (LAN)

•As its name suggests, a LAN (local area network) is a
network of computers and other devices that is confined to a
1
relatively small space, such as one building or even one office.
•Small LANs first became popular in the early 1980s. At that

time, LANs might have consisted of a handful of computers
2 connected in a peer-to-peer fashion.
• Today’s LANs are typically much larger and more complex

client/server networks. Often, separate LANs are interconnected
and rely on several servers running many different applications
3
and managing resources other than data.
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Activity : Identify the number of local

network within the LAN
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1.3.4 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 is a computer network that usually spans a city or
a large campus.
 A MAN usually interconnects a number of local
area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity
backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links,
and provides up-link services to wide area
networks (or WAN) and the Internet.
MAN
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1.3.5 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 A network that connects two or more geographically
distinct LANs or MANs is called a WAN (wide area
network).
 Because such networks carry data over longer
distances than LANs, WANs require slightly different
transmission methods and media and often use a
greater variety of technologies than LANs.
 Most MANs can also be described as WANs; in fact,
network engineers are more likely to refer to all
networks that cover a broad geographical range as
WANs.
WAN
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1.4 COMPUTER NETWORKS

TOPOLOGIES
1.4 Computer network topologies

What is topology?
 It defines how the computers or nodes within the

network are arranged and connected to each
other.
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Computer network topologies:

BUS
STAR
RING
HYBRID
MESH
BUS
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Characteristics of BUS TOPOLOGY
1. Each computer or server is connected to the

single bus cable.
2. A signal from the source travels in both
directions to all machines connected on the bus
cable until it finds the intended recipient.
3. If the machine address does not match the
intended address for the data, the machine
ignores the data.
5. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine

address, the data is accepted.
6. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it
is rather inexpensive to implement when compared
to other topologies.
7. However, the low cost of implementing the
technology is offset by the high cost of managing
the network.
8. Since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single
point failure. If the network cable breaks, the entire
network will be down.
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STAR
Characteristics of STAR TOPOLOGY
1. The star topology is considered the easiest

topology to design and implement.
2. Each network host is connected to a central hub
with a point-to-point connection.
3. All traffic that traverses the network passes
through the central hub.
4. The hub acts as a signal repeater.
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4. An advantage of the star topology is the

simplicity of adding additional nodes.
5. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is
that the hub represents a single point of failure.
RING
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Characteristics of RING TOPOLOGY

1. A network topology that is set up in a circular
fashion in which data travels around the ring in
one direction and each device on the right acts
as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it
travels.
2. Each device incorporates a receiver for the
incoming signal and a transmitter to send the
data on to the next device in the ring.
3. The network is dependent on the ability of the
signal to travel around the ring.
HYBRID
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Characteristics of HYBRID TOPOLOGY

1. Hybrid networks use a combination of any two
or more topologies in such a way that the
resulting network does not exhibit one of the
standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).
2. Two common examples for Hybrid network
are: star ring network and star bus network
MESH
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Characteristics of MESH TOPOLOGY

1. Consists of each node connected to all other
nodes.
2. Main advantage : is the redundancy it provides,
which preserves connectivity even in the event
of a failure between links.
3. Disadvantage : very expensive to set up.
SUMMARY OF NETWROK TOPOLOGIES
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PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
IN NETWORKING
Outcomes 4
By the end of the course, student should be able to :
Principles of communication
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Principles of communication
Channel
SOURCE DESTINATION
Explain the source, channel and

destinations in network communication.
 In order for communication to occur a source,
destination, and some sort of channel must be
present.
 The first of these elements is the message source, or
sender. Message sources are people, or electronic
devices, that need to communicate a message to
other individuals or devices.
 The second element of communication is the
destination, or receiver, of the message. The
destination receives the message and interprets it.
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 A third element, called a channel or medium, provides

the pathway over which the message can travel from
source to destination.
 In the networked world, the medium is usually some
sort of physical cable. It may also be electromagnetic
radiation, in the case of wireless networking.
 The connection between the source and destination
may either be direct or indirect, and may span
multiple media types.
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FUNCTIONS OF NETWORKING
HARDWARE
Outcomes 5
By the end of the course, student should be able to :
 Explain 7 networking hardware
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Switch
Hub Bridges
Repeater Routers
Networking
NIC Gateways
Hardware
1. Network Interface Card (NIC)

 NIC is a circuit board or chip, which allows the
computer to communicate to other computers on a
Network.
 This board, when connected to a cable or other method
of transferring data such as infrared, can share resources,
information and computer hardware.
 Utilizing network cards to connect to a network allow
users to share data such as companies being able to have
the capability of having a database that can be accessed all
at the same time, send and receive e-mail internally
within the company, or share hardware devices such as
printers.
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Various types of NIC :

1. Cards on an expansion board inside a computer.
(e.g : PCI NIC, PCI Express NIC)
2. Cards installed to the computer’s bus internally.
(e.g : PCMCIA adapter, USB port, Fire Wire,
Compact Flash NIC)
3. On board NIC
4. Wireless NIC
NIC installed on an expansion board

inside a computer
1. PCI NIC
Motherboard with installed NIC
2. PCIE NIC
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Installed to the computers bus

externally
1. PCMCIA adapter
2. USB port
3. FireWire
4. Compact Flash NIC
On-board NIC
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Wireless NIC
2. Repeaters
 A repeater is an electronic device that receives a
signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher
power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that
the signal can cover longer distances.
 Repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do
not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted,
they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the
OSI model.
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3. Hub
 An Ethernet hub, active hub, network

hub, repeater hub or hub is a device for
connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic
Ethernet devices together and making them act as
a single network segment.
 Operate at layer 1 OSI model
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 Hubs contain multiple ports that are used to connect

hosts to the network.
 Hubs are simple devices that do not have the
necessary electronics to decode the messages sent
between hosts on the network.
 Hubs cannot determine which host should get any
particular message.
 A hub simply accepts electronic signals from one
port and regenerates (or repeats) the same message
out all of the other ports.
4. Switch
 A network switch or switching hub is a computer

networking device that connects network segments.
 The term commonly refers to a network bridge that
processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model.
 Switches that additionally process data at the network layer
(layer 3 and above) are often referred to as Layer 3
switches or multilayer switches.
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 Like a hub, a switch connects multiple hosts to

the network. Unlike a hub, a switch can forward a
message to a specific host.
 When a host sends a message to another host on
the switch, the switch accepts and decodes the
frames to read the physical (MAC) address
portion of the message.
 Main purpose of a switch is to make a LAN work

better – to optimize its performance – providing
more bandwidth for the LAN’s users.
 By default, switches break up collision domains.
 It is create separate collision domains, but a single
broadcast domain.
 Operate at layer 2 OSI model
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5. Bridges
 Bridges are devices that connect two network

segments by analyzing incoming frames and making
decisions about where to direct them based on each
frame’s MAC address.
 A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch
being a bridge with numerous ports.
 Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to
determine if the bridge is able to send the given
packet to another segment of the network
 A significant advantage to using bridges over

repeaters or hubs is that bridges are protocol
independent.
 For instance, all bridges can connect an Ethernet
segment carrying IP-based traffic with an
Ethernet segment carrying traffic that uses a
different Network layer protocol.
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6. Router
 A router is a device that interconnects two or more

computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets
of data between them.
 Routers are used to connect networks together and route
packets of data from one network to another.
 A router has two or more network interfaces, which may
be to different physical types of network (such as copper
cables, fiber, or wireless) or different network standards
 Works in layer 3 OSI model
 Routers, like switches, are able to decode and read the

messages that are sent to them.
 Unlike switches, which only decode (unencapsulate) the
frame containing the MAC address information, routers
decode the packet that is encapsulated within the frame.
 The packet format contains the IP addresses of the
destination and source hosts, as well as the message data
being sent between them. The router reads the network
portion of the destination IP address and uses it to find
which one of the attached networks is the best way to
forward the message to the destination.
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Advantages using router
• They don’t forward

1 broadcast by default
• They can filter the

2 network based on layer 3
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7. Gateways
 A network gateway is an internetworking system

capable of joining together two networks that use
different base protocols.
 A network gateway can be implemented completely
in software, completely in hardware, or as a
combination of both.
 Depending on the types of protocols they support,
network gateways can operate at any level of the OSI
model.
 Connect two systems using different formatting,

communications protocols, or architecture
Repackage information to be read by another system
Operates at multiple OSI Model layers
E-mail gateway
Internet gateway
LAN gateway
Voice/data gateway
Firewall
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PAST YEAR QUESTIONS
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JUN 2015
JUN 2015 Objective No.1

Select FALSE statement about networks.
a) People in various places can be connected using a network.
b) A long distance communication cannot be using a network.
c) Networking technology allows banking services to de done
everywhere and at any time.
d) A network links two or more computers together to enable
data and resource exchange.
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JUN 2015 Objective No.2

Marissa is a student of PSMZA. She wants to
contact her parent in London via email. Identify the
type of network that involved in this
communication.
a) LAN
b) WAN
c) MAN
d) College Area Network.
JUN 2015 Subjective No.1

List THREE (3) basic components of the network.
a) ___________________________
b) ___________________________
c) ___________________________
Tips (any 3 from 11 common elements od client server

network)
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State the relationship between a server and a client.
Illustrate a diagram to show the relationship
between client, server and backbone.

Differentiate the usage of peer-to-peer network
and client/server network and draw the suitable
diagram of each network.
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JUN 2015 EC 301
Objective no 1
 Referring to the graphic in Diagram A1, five PCs
are connected through a hub. If host H1 wan to
reply to a message from host H2, which
statement is TRUE?
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a) H1 sends a unicast message to H2 and the hub

forwards it to all devices.
b) H1 sends a unicast message to H2 and the hub
forwards it directly to H2.
c) H1 sends a broadcast message to H2 and the
hub forwards it to all devices.
d) H1 sends a multicast message to H2 and the hub
forwads it directly to H2.
List THREE (3) characteristics for Local Area

Network (LAN)
1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
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State TWO functions of Network Interface Card

(NIC)
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
 Using a diagram, describe the client-server

networking and peer to peer networking.
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 Describe a scenario of how the computer acts as a

server, client and both.
 JUNE 2011
 State the type of network topology illustrated in
Figure A(1) below.
 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Hybrid
62

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7/21/2016

Prepared by : Zuraiti Bt Che Amat

1.1 COMPUTER NETWORK

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What is computer network?

A network is two or more

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Example of simple network computer

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1.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKED

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•ALLOWS FILE SHARING AND REMOTE FILE ACCESS.

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•INCREASED STORAGE CAPACITY

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1. What is computer network?

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1.1.2 COMMON ELEMENT IN

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Common element in CS networking

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Elements in client server networking

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5. NOS (Network Operating System)

Examples of popular network operating systems include

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11. Transmission Media

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Activity 1 : Differentiate between Workstation

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Activity 2 : Differentiate between Server,

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Explain 7 networking standard

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Why “standard” are important?

2 Many different industries use standards to ensure that products,

Because of the wide variety of hardware and software in use today,

Without standards, it would be very difficult to design a network because

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EIA & TIA

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IANA & ICANN

 Individuals and businesses do not typically obtain IP addresses

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1.3 TYPES OF NETWORKS AND

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By the end of this subtopic, student should be

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1.3 Various classification of network

1.3.1 Peer-to-peer network

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Characteristics of Peer-to-peer networks

2. Multiple PCs can also be connected to create a larger peer-

3. By default, no computer on a peer to peer has

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