HEAT TRANSFER

Kotiba Hamad - Sungkyunkwan university

Introduction
Introduction
1. What is Heat Transfer
“Energy in transit due to temperature difference”
Thermodynamics tells us:
How much heat is transferred (ΔQ)
How much work is done (ΔW)
Final state of the system.

Heat transfer tells us:

How Δ Q is transferred (heat transfer mode).
At what rate Δ Q is transferred.
Temperature distribution inside the body.

Thermodynamic and heat transfer complete each other.

Introduction
2. Heat transfer modes
1. Conduction:
Needs matter.
Molecular phenomenon (diffusion process).
Without bulk motion of matter.

2. Convection:
Heat carried away by bulk motion of fluid
Needs fluid matter

3. Radiation:
Does not need matter.
Transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves.
Introduction
2. Heat transfer modes
Introduction
2. Heat transfer modes
Introduction
3. Applications
1. Energy production and conversion
Steam power plant, solar energy conversion etc.
2. Refrigeration and air-conditioning
3. Domestic applications
Ovens, Stoves, toaster
4. Cooling of electronic equipment
5. Manufacturing and materials processing
welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
6. Automobiles and aircraft design
7. Nature
weather and climate
Introduction
4. Conduction
 Needs medium and temperature gradient.
 Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the more energetic to the
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between the particles.
Introduction
4. Conduction
Rate equations (1D conduction):
 Heat transfer processes can be quantified in terms of appropriate rate equations.
 For the one-dimensional plane wall shown in the figure below, having a temperature
distribution T(x), the rate equation is expressed by Fourier’s law as:

 Where q” is the heat flux (W/m2)

 K is thermal conductivity (W/m.K), material constant.
 dT/dx is the temperature gradient.
 Under the steady-state conditions:
Introduction
4. Conduction
Rate equations (1D conduction):
Example-1:
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having
a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m.K. Measurements made during steady-state
operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m x1.2 m on a side?
Introduction
4. Conduction
Example-1:
 Steady-state conditions.
 One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
 Constant thermal conductivity.
Introduction
4. Conduction
Example-1:
Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux may be determined
from Fourier’s law:

The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer through a section of unit area, and it is
uniform across the surface of the wall. The heat loss through the wall of area (qx) is
given by:
Introduction
4. Conduction
Example-2:
Introduction
5. Convection
The convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms.
1. Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion).
2. Energy bulk motion of fluid. Such motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient,
contributes to heat transfer.

We are especially interested in convection heat transfer, which occurs between a fluid
in motion and a bounding surface when the two are at different temperatures.
Introduction
5. Convection
Consider fluid flow over the heated
surface, as shown in the figure:
 The fluid-surface interaction is the
development of a region in the fluid
through which the velocity varies from
zero at the surface to a finite value.
 This region of the fluid is known as the
hydrodynamic, or velocity, boundary
layer.
 If the surface and flow temperatures
differ, there will be a region of the
fluid through which the temperature
If:
varies from Ts at to T in the outer flow. convection heat transfer will occur from the surface to
 This region, called the thermal the outer flow.
boundary layer.
Introduction
5. Convection
The convection heat transfer mode is sustained both by random molecular
motion and by the bulk motion of the fluid within the boundary layer. The
contribution due to random molecular motion (diffusion) dominates near the
surface (y=0) where the fluid velocity is low. In fact, at the interface between
the surface and the fluid the fluid velocity is zero, and heat is transferred by this
mechanism only.
The contribution due to bulk fluid motion originates from the fact that the
boundary layer grows as the flow progresses in the x-direction.

Accordingly, the convection heat

transfer is classified according to the
nature of the flow.
Introduction
5. Convection
Convection heat transfer is classified according to the nature of the flow as
follow:
1. forced convection: flow is caused by an external force. For example; a fan to
provide forced convection air cooling of hot electrical components on a stack of
printed circuit boards

2. free (or natural) convection: the flow is caused by buoyancy forces, which
are due to density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
Introduction
5. Convection
Introduction
5. Convection
Rate equation:
Regardless of the nature of the convection heat transfer process, the appropriate rate
equation is of the form:

where q”, the convective heat flux (W/m2), is proportional to the difference
between the surface and fluid temperatures. h is convection heat transfer
coefficient (W/m2.K).

This expression is known as Newton’s law of cooling

Introduction
5. Convection
Example-3:
Introduction
6. Radiation
 Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature, and it
is carried by electromagnetic waves (or alternatively, photons).

 This emission usually occurs from solids.

 Emissions from liquids and gases can be considered too.

 Regardless of the form of matter, the emission may be attributed to changes in the
electron configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Introduction
6. Radiation
 Consider radiation transfer processes for the surface as
shown in the figure here.
 In this Figure, radiation that is emitted by the surface
originates from the thermal energy of matter bounded by
the surface.
 The rate at which energy is released per unit area (W/m2) is
termed the surface emissive power, E.
 The upper limit to the emissive power is given by:

Where Ts is surface temperature, and σ is equation constant

(5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4). The upper limit indicates to blackbody
radiation (an ideal radiator).
 the power emitted by a real body is less than the upper
limit (for that the blackbody):

Where ε is a radiative property of the surface termed the

emissivity (0> ε >1). Material's constant
Introduction
6. Radiation
 The surface can also receive radiation from surrounding.
 The rate at which all such radiation is received on a unit area of the surface as the
irradiation (G).
 A portion, or all, of the irradiation may be absorbed by the surface, thereby increasing
the thermal energy of the material.

The amount of the thermal energy to be absorbed by the surface is related to the nature
of the surface and irradiation (α ). For example: the absorptivity of a surface to solar
radiation may differ from its absorptivity to radiation emitted by the walls of a furnace.

For engineering problems

1. Liquids are considered opaque to radiation heat transfer.
2. Gases are considered transparent to radiation heat transfer.
3. Solids can be opaque (as is the case for metals) or semitransparent (as is the case for
thin sheets of some polymers and some semiconducting materials).
Introduction
6. Radiation
 A special case that occurs frequently involves radiation exchange between a small
surface at Ts and a much larger, isothermal surface that completely surrounds the
smaller one.
 The surroundings could be the walls of a room or a furnace whose temperature Tsur
differs from that of an enclosed surface (Tsur # Ts).
Introduction
6. Radiation
The irradiation may be approximated by emission from a blackbody at Tsur

The net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface, expressed per unit area of the
surface, is

If the surface is a gray body (α=ε) then:

emissivity =absorptivity

This expression provides the difference between thermal energy that is released due to
radiation emission and that gained due to irradiation from surrounding (radiation
absorption).
Introduction
6. Radiation

Based on this equation the net radiation heat exchange between surface
and surrounding at different temperatures can be given by:

Where hr is radiation heat transfer constant:

Using this constant, the radiation heat transfer rate will proportional to
the temperature difference rather that to the difference between two
temperatures to the fourth power.
Introduction
6. Radiation

hr depends strongly on temperature, whereas the temperature dependence of the

convection heat transfer coefficient h is generally weak.

The surfaces of this figure can also

simultaneously transfer heat by
convection to a surrounding gas. The
total rate of heat transfer from the
surface is then:
Introduction
5. Convection
Example-4:
Introduction
6. Radiation
Example-5:
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25
°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and
emissivity (ε) are 200 °C and 0.8, respectively.
1. What are the surface emissive power (E) and irradiation (G)?
2. If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to
the air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length
of pipe?
Introduction
6. Radiation
Example-5:
1. What are the surface emissive power (E) and
irradiation (G)?

Rate of radiation heat transfer from the pipe?.

2. What is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit
length of pipe?
 Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air
and by radiation exchange with the walls
Introduction
7. Relationship to Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics may be used to determine the amount of energy required in
the form of heat for a system to pass from one state to another.

 Heat transfer specifically seeks to quantify the rate at which heat is

exchanged through the rate equations expressed.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
 The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement that the total energy of
a system is conserved, and therefore the only way that the amount of energy
in a system can change is if energy crosses its boundaries. The first law also
addresses the ways in which energy can cross the boundaries of a system.

1. Closed system:
 For a closed system (fixed mass), there are only two ways: heat transfer
through the boundaries and work done on or by the system.

Where: E is the energy stored in the system.

Q is the net heat transferred to the system.
W is work done by or on the system.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
2. Open system (control volume)
The first law can also be applied to a control volume (or open system), a region
of space bounded by a control surface through which mass may pass.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
The first law of thermodynamics addresses total energy, which consists of
1. Mechanical energy (kinetic and potential energies).
2. Internal energy (thermal energy and other kinds of energies, chemical for
example).
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
For heat transfer concept, it will be enough to study thermal and mechanical
energies. Based on the first law, it can be stated that:

Considering that the first law must be true at every each instant of time t, the
rate, at which the stored energies increase, can be used rather than the mount of
energies.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
The change in total thermal and mechanical energy stored on control volume
system (ΔEst) is obtained from energy entering (Ein), leaving (Eout) and energy
generated (Eg) in the system the system and control volume. Finally, thermal
and mechanical energy:
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
 Most often in heat transfer problems, the change in mechanical energy is very
small and can be ignored.
 Then , in heat transfer problem, just change in the internal energy is
considered.
 The internal energy consists of 4 components:
1.Sensible component: rotational and/or vibrational motion of
atoms/molecules.
2. Latent component: Intermolecular forces.
3. Chemical component: Energy stored in the chemical bonds between atoms.
4. Nuclear component: Binding forces in the nucleus.
 For the study of heat transfer, we focus attention on the sensible and latent
components of the internal energy, which are together referred to as thermal
energy.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
1.Sensible component: related to the change in temperature.
2.Latent component: related to change in phase (from liquid to gas, for
example).
 According to the pervious explanation, the total stored energy is:

Generation from chemical to

thermal energy

Internal energy = thermal energy

Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)

+
The change in mechanical
energy is ignored

Work done by pressure forces

moving fluid is pv (flow work)

Steady-state conditions
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)

 The enthalpy per unit mass is given by

 The difference in enthalpies is given by:

where cp is specific heat at constant pressure.

 The change in mechanical energy is

ignored.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
Example-1:
A long conducting rod of diameter D and electrical resistance per unit length is
initially in thermal equilibrium with the ambient air and its surroundings. This
equilibrium is disturbed when an electrical current I is passed through the rod.
Develop an equation that could be used to compute the variation of the rod
temperature with time during the passage of the current.
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
Example-1:
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
Example-1:

Energy outflow is due to the rate of change in the internal thermal

convection and net radiation energy of the rod ) (Est) is given by:
from the surface:
Introduction
7.1. Relationship to the First Law (Conservation of Energy)
Example-1:
Introduction
8. Summary