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F'hysica Scripta. Vol. T7, 101-107, 1984

Cataclysmic Variables
G. T. Bath

Department of Astrophysics, University Observatory, Oxford, OX1 3 RQ, England

Received December 20, 1982; accepted March 1I , I983

Abstract 2. Discs in cataclysmic variables

Over the past twenty years a significant group of all classes of eruptive The cataclysmic variable stars are well established interacting
variable stars have been shown to be interacting binaries with mass binaries containing discs accreting onto white dwarfs [ 11-13]
transfer onto an accreting, relatively compact component. The spectral which have proved a fruitful field for further progress, and are
region covered by the dominant fraction of the emitted flux depends on
the nature of the accreting component, the rate of accretion, and the providing a rich source of information on accretion disc physics
role of viscosity and angular momentum in generating an accretion disc. and evolution. Cataclysmic variables, and in particular their
The origin of the modulation of the transfer rate causing eruptions may in eruptive outbursts, present an observational testing-ground for
principle occur either in the evelope of the mass transfering component models of disc structure for the following reasons:
or within the disc itself. (1) Accretion discs in cataclysmic variables are directly
Stability studies show that G, K, M spectral class companions should
be dynamically unstable, and suffer relaxation oscillations within the observed [14] and dominate the energy output at optical,
envelope, with the same interval as the observed outburst interval. Time- ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths [ 15-17]. The ultraviolet,
dependent studies of disc evolution indicate that the resulting mass and optical spectrum is in many cases close to that predicted
transfer instabilities accurately model the eruptions of dwarf novae and for a thin, optically thick accretion disc.
certain symbiotics. For the case of whitedwarf accretion the dominant
(2)The eruptions of dwarf novae are generated within the
region of emission is in the far ultraviolet. The spectral evolution,
eruption decay rate and stream impact behaviour observed in dwarf disc, and are most successfully accounted for by variable
novae are in accord with theories of bursting mass transfer by the com- accretion flow, due either to variable mass transfer by the
panion. One major area of uncertainty is the structure of the inner disc companion [18-201 or some form of intrinsic modulation
boundary-layer, at the highest accretion temperatures and possibly within the disc itself due to structural changes which alter the
responsible for observed hard and soft X-ray emission. To probe this
viscosity over a sufficiently large region of the disc in a quasi-
region of considerable theoretical interest and uncertainty, extended
X-ray monitoring as required. periodic cycle [21-231.
(3) The total luminosity, even at outburst, is less than the
Eddington limit. The thin disc approximation (which averages
1 . The role of accretion the vertical structure) is therefore valid.
Accretion, and the release of gravitational potential energy (4) The time-dependence of accretion flow through a disc is
liberated by infall, plays a major role in theoretical studies determined by the magnitude of viscosity. Thus the eruption
of a whole range of astrophysical problems - from the most timescale provides a sensitive measure of the magnitude of the
energetic radiation scources in the Universe, in the form of kinematic viscosity acting in these systems.
quasars, to the faintest cataclysmic variables. which are fainter
than the Sun.
3. Eruption mechanisms and the stability of the companion
In this framework the role of angular momentum in gener-
ating rotationally supported discs has been an increasing focus The mechanism of accretion modulation has been ascribed to
of attention [l-41. It is evident that the interaction binaries, two possible causes:
in which one star fills its Roche lobe and mass transfer results, (1) Variations in the mass transfer rate by the companion
can develop rotationally supported discs, or annuli, about the [181.
companion star, providing the angular momentum of the trans- (2) Intrinsic instabilities within the disc [21].
fered material is high enough (i.e., the accreting star compact The main conclusion of the work described here is that mass
enough) to place the matter in an orbit above the accreting transfer instabilities by the companion are both expected on
star's stellar surface [5, 61. The role of discs in protostellar theoretical grounds and are in overall agreement with observed
collapse, in the formation of planetary systems [7, 81, and in behaviour. The case of disc instabilities is not sufficiently
accretion onto massive black holes in galactic nuclei and developed to conclusively rule it out as a mechanism for some
quasars [9, lo] are further areas in which accretion discs have outbursts, but it cannot account for all modes of outburst
been a fruitful line of theoretical discussion. behaviour observed.
The energy per gram liberated by accretion is inversely There are two unique features of cataclysmic variables which
proportional to the size of the accreting object, and the most must be emphasised in any discussion of the instability of the
extreme high-temperature plasma conditions found in the mass-losing component. The first is the gravitational potential
bright galactic X-ray sources are generated by accretion onto the within which the star is confined, and the second is its spectral
most compact objects - neutron stars and black holes. The class, or effective temperature.
combination of extreme plasma conditions, and uncertain The binary periods are sufficiently small that the proximity
knowledge of source structure has led to major difficulties in of the white dwarf in its orbit leads to filling of the Roche lobe
progressing with detailed models of discs in these cases, par- by the mass-losing companion. The stability of this star must be
ticularly in establishing the size and role of viscosity. discussed not in terms of the potential of a single star extending
Physica Scripta T7
102 G. T. Bath
to infinity, but with the appropriate surface boundary con-
ditions imposed by the gravitational saddle point between the
two stars. The turnover in the potential leads to mass loss and
the generation of a free-fall stream following expansion into
contact with the Roche surface. This condition of “unbinding”
of matter at the inner Lagrangian point is equivalent to the
condition that the energy of escape of matter within the
envelope (along the line of centres of the binary orbit) is the
energy required to lift it to the inner Lagrangian point and not
the energy required to disperse it to infinity. As Papaloizou and
Bath [24] have explicitly shown, the stability of the companion
star is radically affected by this major difference in the form
of the potential surfaces as compared to an isolated single star.
A star approaching the filling of its Roche potential “feels”
the presence of the companion as a consequence of the weak-
ening and eventual turnover of the gravitational field. If the
star is cool enough to contain ionization zones, these can act to
dynamically destabilize the envelope in exactly the same way as
single evolved giant-branch stars eventually become dynamically
unstable [25, 261 but with major differences in behaviour
created by the form of the binary potential.
Papaloizou and Bath show that so long as the envelope is
sufficiently cool to contain ionization zones (i.e., at effective
temperatures < 8000 K) then dynamical instability will grow
along the line of centres when the photosphere is sufficiently
close to the inner Lagrangian point. Dwarf novae all contain G,
or later, spectral class components which are subject to this
inst ability.
The non-linear hydrodynamic development has been
examined using two different approaches by Bath [27] and Wood
[28]. Wood confirms the earlier demonstration [24] of sensivity
of the growth rates to the assumed convective mixing-length to
scale-height ratio (i.e., to the degree of super-adiabaticity of the
envelope). Wood finds dynamically driven outflow develops over
a “spherical” Roche surface, but does not find clear indications
of a relaxation outburst cycle. This may be due to the uncertain
treatment of convection, or to insufficient evolution to demon-
strate the interaction between dynamical destabilization and
eventual thermal readjustment.
The treatment by Bath [27] is somewhat different. The
gravitational potential is taken as that of a single star (tending
to increase the stability of the configuration), with mass loss
allowed only when the Roche lobe is filled. Convection is
ignored on the grounds that no satisfactory theory of time-
dependent convection is presently developed. Results indicate
instability in cool stellar envelopes. Mass loss builds up, and
the envelope is driven progressively out of thermal equilibrium
(see Fig. 8 [27]). The instability is driven by the release of
recombination energy liberated in the ionization zones as ionized
matter expands towards the surface, cools and recombines.
Quasi-periodic mass transfer bursts are generated, with the
envelope cycling between a state so close to the Roche surface
that it is dynamically unstable, and a state of thermal depletion
when energy balance is restored by energy transport from the
interior while the envelope is somewhat contracted below the
Roche surface.
5.1. Spectral evolution
4. Viscous disc evolution
The spectral evolution of the continuum through outburst in
The effect of dynamically driven bursts of mass transfer can be VW Hydri over the spectral range 1225-7500 8, is described by
studied with time-dependent disc evolution models. The time- Hassall et al. [34]. Their results are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 . The
dependent evolution of a thin, viscous, Keplerian disc is most distinctive feature is the continuum distribution during the
Physica Scripta T?
described by the general evolution equation,
with the associated vertical structure most simply described by
“one zone” vertical structure equations [29, 30, 201. U is the
vertically averaged kinematic viscosity, E the surface density,
am/aR the rate at which matter is supplied from the mass
transfer stream by disc/stream collision, and R K the circular
Keplerian radius at which the stream would orbit if there were
no viscous angular momentum transfer within the disc.
The first term is the fundamental diffusion term describing
matter and angular momentum redistribution through viscous
stress. This term leads to a disc configuration being set up on a
viscous timescale, in which matter spirals inward, losing angular
momentum to more slowly rotating outer regions, and radiating
the energy dissipated as a consequence through the top and
bottom of the disc. The spiraling timescale is determined by the
kinematic viscosity, v. In &-viscosity discs U is parametrized as
U = acH where c is the sound speed and H the disc thickness.
a FZZ 1 leads to the largest value of viscosity compatible with
subsonic turbulence.
The second term describes the way in which matter is
injected into the disc from the mass transfer stream, and the
third term describes the tendency of this new material to
squeeze the disc towards an annulus orbiting at radius R K , deep
within the outer radius of the disc at ROUT.At the outer, tidal
radius, ROUT it is assumed that angular momentum can be
removed with complete efficiency [3 1,321.
am/aR measures the rate of input of matter into the disc
and the degree of stream penetration. Two assumptions for the
latter have been adopted. In early work [20, 23, 331 it was
assumed that stream material was instantaneously circularized
on impact with disc material. In more recent developments [30]
the stream is assumed to be stripped at a rate which is pro-
portional to the circular mass flux in the disc at that radius, i.e.,
1/2
If = 1 the momentum imparted to stream material by
“collision” of disc matter orbiting in the azimuthal direction
is the entire momentum of disc material. P = 1 is an absolute
upper limit on the efficiency of stream stripping and 0 = 0.5,
corresponding to equipartition of energy, is a more realistic
upper limit.
In the next section three aspects of dwarf nova eruptions
- the spectral evolution, the eruption decay time, and the
stream impact bright-spot evolution - are compared with
predictions of theoretical models generated by bursting mass
transfer, together with less successful preliminary results for
proposed disc instability models.
5 . Evolutionary disc models - comparison with observations
 Cataclysmic Variables 103

magnitudes in bands 120 8, and 60 A wide respectively centred

Rise
q
. Quiescence
t---u l t r a v i o l e t 11-
'0'' 1225 1500 3000
Wavelength
Fig. 1. Continuum spectral distribution during quiescence, outburst rise,
and outburst fall in VW Hydri. Arrows indicate the wavelength of the
associated magnitudes employed in Fig. 2.
outburst rise (Fig. 1). On the rise the short wavelength IUE
spectrum is indistinguishable from the quiescent (approximately
steady-state) distribution. In stark contrast, the optical flux
has risen sharply, peaking at = 4300 A. At this stage, some 12 h
into the optical outburst, most of the flux comes out at optical
rather than W wavelengths, with the far W unaffected. How-
ever, by the time the outburst has entered the decline the
spectrum has reverted to an approximate power law [15] with
a slope of - 2.35 rt 0.05.
To illustrate the continuum evolution Hassall et al. define
two ultraviolet magnetudes additional to V. These are the
at 2620 8, and 1360 8,designated here U2620 and UI3m (equiv-
alent to L and S of Hassall et al.).
The outburst light curve in these magnitudes and the
associated two-colour diagram are shown in Fig. 2 . In the two-
colour diagram the outburst follows a closed loop. Initial
reddening as V alone decreases, is followed by a subsequent
decrease in both V and to the top right of the diagram,
followed by a diagonal crossing to the most extreme decrease
of U1360 at outburst maximum. During the decline the curve
migrates diagonally back to the quiescent point, completing
the loop.
Figure 3 shows the spectral evolution of a theoretical disc.
0pttcai-P
The spectrum has been computed assuming a local black body
5000 8000
spectral distribution from each radial point in the disc. The
(A)
disc parameters are approximately those of VW Hydri, with
the assumption of instantaneous mixing and a = 1.5. A mass
transfer burst lasting 10's (- 1 day) at 10'9gs-1 into a steady
quiescent disc with an accretion rate 10l6gs-' generates the
erup tion.
The most notable feature is the same qualitative behaviour
of the spectrum (see Fig. 3(a)) and the loop in the ultraviolet/
optical twocolour diagram. This behaviour, which can be
characterised as "spectral reddening" on the rise, is a general
feature of all discs subject to a rapid increase in the transfer
rate (so long as p > 0.1, If p is significantly less then extensive
mixing of burst matter in the inner disc destroys the spectral
distortion on the rise). The reddening on the rise is a direct
result of enhanced dissipation in cool outer-disc regions as the
mass transfer burst first mixes in the outer regions and then
diffuses inwards through viscous transport. As is evident from

-
predicted light curve this diffusion time is rather shorter on the
rise than observed in VW Hydri (by a factor 0.3) and some
-
what longer in the decline (by a factor, 2.0). This could be
-
taken as indicating increasing viscosity (from a 0.5 to 3.0)-
as the mass transfer burst penetrates into the disc, and produces
-44 U,,,, *- 1360 enhanced turbulent flow in disc material.

-3- 5.2. Eruption decay time

Bailey [35] first pointed out (while still an undergraduate) that
-2 - ,/* f

the eruption decay-time increased as the binary period of cata-

-1 - I clysmic variables increased. This relation has been recently con-

__/.
.
a
.
. /'*' * firmed by Mattei and Klavetter [36], and their results are shown
od in Fig. 4. The eruption decay-time is determined by the size of
4 1 viscosity, and the decay-time provides a sensitive test of its
2444soo+ $3 74 75 76 77 78
JD quantitative value. Theoretical models [37], shown in Fig. 4 for
comparison, fit the observed data for a value of a = 1.5. The
observed spread can be accounted for by white dwarf masses
in the range 0.5 to 1.4M,. The allowed variation of a is small.
With a 1 M O white dwarf, the observational points all lie within
the range 0.5 < a < 3.0. Values of a<OS are incompatible
with observed decay timescales. In particular values of a = lo-*
lead to decay times approaching a year. The physical expla-
nation of the relation discovered by Bailey is simply the
increased time taken for material to diffuse through, and drain
out, of larger discs in longer period systems [27,38].
I
I 5.3. Stream penetration
-1 0 +1

Uzs20- a"*.,,
The general effects of stream penetration are shown in Fig. 5 .
Fig. 2. Outburst light curve at optical and ultraviolet wavelengths (a) and Three models with values of p = 1.0, 0.1 and 0.01, allowing
trajectory in the associated two colour diagram (b) (from Hassall e t al. successively deeper penetration, are shown (Figs. 5(a-c))
1982). together with the associated surface density distribution, at
Physica Scripta T7
104 G. T. Bath

-
RISE ROUT = 2.5 10l0cm

I O V E R A L L SPECTRUM j 43

33
-?

39.5

Log
30.5
.,g .-"I-=
38 .O

31 5

37.0

K
3 6 G<
5-2 I
'j -4 0 -4 .b -4.4 1
-4.2

Log x CY Log X cm

DECLINE Ro,,=2-5 101ocm

1

OVERALL SPECTRUM
2

M
3

-
I

0 0.2 0 4 0 6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1 . 4 I 6 1 8 2.C

t XlC S

39.5 i-,\ uv & VIS1JAL SPECTRUM

1
-0.5 I

- I .5
i
-2 .0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0 . 5

LOQ cm ~2,ZLl - vss,

Fig. 3. Evolution of the spectral distribution due to burst injection on etical light curve at optical and UV wavelengths and associated two
the rise (a), peak (b), and decline (c), together with the resulting theor- colour diagram (d and e).

Physica Scripta T7
 Cataclysmic Variables 105

The fundamental point illustrated in Fig. 5 is that for

realistic values of 0.1 < 0 < 0.5, significant stream penetration
occurs. The observable effects of this penetration are changes
in the impact bright-spot radiation pattern, and a delay in the
response of the impact bright-spot luminosity [30].
The bright-spot luminosity is well known to be delayed in
some systems during the initial outburst rise (see Fig. 6(b)).
I This has been frequently cited in the past as an indication that
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 . 4 0.0 0 . 4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
the mass flux from the companion has not varied. However
theoretical models show that if < 0.5 the bright-spot develop-
ment is delayed (see Fig. 6(a)), due t o the time taken for the
I
disc to evolve, transport material to the outer regions, and strip
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 the impacting stream sufficently close to the disc edge to gen-
t (x106sec.) erate an anisotropic radiation pattern from the edge. If the
Fig. 4. Observed relation (a) between the outburst decay-time and binary stream penetrates a distance deeper than the outer edge thick-
period (opencircles), compared with theoretical models (full diamonds). ness HOUT, then that fraction of material which penetrates
The change in the theoretical outburst shape with increasing binary radiates its excess kinetic energy through the top and bottom
period (b), and the assumed burst form (c) is also shown. of the disc and produces no obvious anisotropic radiation
component.
equally spaced time intervals between the initial start of the
burst (A) and final maximum mass transfer rate (B), and, below, 5.4. Disc instability models
the mass transfer burst form. This second class of model has not been developed so fully, and
0 can be taken as a measure of the efficiency of circularisation similar detailed comparison is not possible. In Fig. 7 we show
of stream material by disc material already in circular orbits. preliminary results for viscous transition models. Eruptions
Alternatively it may be thought of as the fraction of disc (Fig. 7(a)) are generated by a model with a viscous transition
material at any radius point which impacts the stream, and temperature which varies as Tt a R-3'4 throughout the disc.
circularises that stream fraction with 100% efficiency. On With this particular choice of critical conditions for instability,
energetic grounds /3 is likely to be less than 0.5. If /3 is signifi- the resulting local limit cycles are coherently connected in the
cantly less than 0.1, then in dwarf nova discs the stream burst radial direction, and a globally propagating transition front
at outburst will destroy the disc, orbiting many times before developes. Note that this functional form of Tt is arbitrarily
circularisation. chosen. The unstable region extends over the whole disc,

rI ----- ---- -- 1
I
Redge i z 80

I III i
i
g cm2
x lO'O i 40

I I

160 b
5 x
120
4
R
g cm-2
3
x Id" 80

cm 2

40
1

o l J 0

Fig 5. Depth of penetration into the disc of the mass transfer stream as
the efficiency of streamstripping decreases. Figures compare p = 1.O (a),
0.1 (b) and 0.01 (c).

Physica ScTipta T7
106 G. T. Bath

il\
5

4 120
R

3
x ldO
cm 2

1 40 1

01
0 1 2 ~~

0 1 2 3 4 5
t Xl0"S
R Xio'O cm

14
0 1 2

t xIO6s
Fig. 5. Continued

leading to largest possible amplitude eruptions. Though this
model exhibits eruptions, they are unlike observed dwarf nova
outbursts.
As with global instability models [ 2 3 ] , local instabilities
which propagate coherently experience two timescales which
are normally reflected in the form of the light curve - a viscous
diffusion timescale, t m (at maximum and quiescence) and a
front propagation time, tprop (transition between outburst
and quiescence). If t, S t,ff then the whole light curve form
is determined by the propagation properties of the transition
front. However this condition cannot be satisfied at outburst
in dwarf novae since it would require Q: > 1. Furthermore it is
not possible to obtain flat-topped outbursts with this class of
36
model, and no natural explanation of the Bailey relation is
apparent.
The instability between convection and radiative states
(allowed by the behaviour of the opacity when bound-free
transitions become important), proposed by Meyer and Meyer-
Hofmeister and others [39, 401 does not result in eruptions if
the transition temperature is constant. Rather it exhibits
irregular variability (Fig. 7(b)). The unstable regions are varying
irregularly on a timescale comparable with the anticipated
convection turnover time. It is not clear that convection can
ever act to change the vertical structure in the way envisaged
in this model. Rather we believe it is more likely that disc
instabilities lead to local structural variations which operate
essentially uncoherently at any radius point in the disc.

34
Log L
-
erg s-'
32
CO""tS Ll0t.l
sec"

30
1;
j:
Lstream 1 10d -

28
0 1 2

t x106 s
5 10 1s

JO, 2441660 +

Fig. 6. Predicted bright-spot delay relative t o the disc in a model with

p = 0.3 (a), compared with observed behaviour in Z Chamaeleontis (b).

Physica Scripta T7
 Cataclysmic Variables 107

I I/ I 1

35 (a) 35 .
Cbl

04 34

33
log L log L
32
I
erg s-’ ---- erg
-I
s
3i A I
.IZ ’

35 35

- -,
LL1
-1
LC

28 -,
ih
0 2 4 6 R IO L? 3,:) 1.0 i.5 20 2.5 3.0

6 . Future work
Future #development of time-dependent disc models including
optically thin disc structure [41], improved opacities, tidal dissi-
pation and a natural treatment of possible local disc instabilities
where multiple solutions exist, are the major focus of present
theoretical effort. Further studies of X-ray emission following-
up the Einstein observations of Mason and Cordova [42] are an
important area for future X-ray work. Present quiescent X-ray
fluxes are compatible with boundary layer effects at the disc/
white dwarf boundary. Studies of the spectral evolution at
X-ray wavelengths will provide vital information on the response
of inner disc structure to sudden enhancement of the accretion
flow.
Combined optical, ultraviolet and X-ray studies of disc
eruptions in cataclysmic variables promise not only to increase
further our understanding of accretion processes in general, and
eventually to extend our understanding to the brightest objects
in the Universe, but they hold the promise of directly probing
the envelope structure of main sequence stars as they period-
ically strip, and throw their mantle toward the accreting
companion.
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Physica Scripta T7