BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

History
The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947 at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the direction of William
Shockley. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by
Shockley in 1948.
The word transistor was given by John R. Pierce and it is derived from the words
“Transfer” and “Resistor” it describes the operation of a BJT i.e. the transfer of an input
signal from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. This type of transistor is made
up of semiconductors.
Transistors are used in the construction of Integrated Circuits (ICs). The number of
transistors that we have been able to fit into an IC has rapidly increased since their creation,
doubling approximately every 2 years (known as Moores Law).

BJT
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-
terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or
magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the
base, the collector and the emitter. In BJT the term bipolar indicates both electrons and
holes contribute to the flow of current.
Based on its doping transistor are classified in to two types, NPN and PNP Transistor.
In case of NPN Transistor emitter and collector are of N type and base is of P type whereas
in PNP Transistor emitter and collector are of P type and base is of N type.

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base and
collector. JE and JC represent the junction of emitter and junction of collector respectively.
In BJT emitter is heavily doped and function of emitter is to supply electrons, base is
lightly doped and collector doping is in between emitter and base. If we talk about width,
base is of narrow region and collector region is larger compare to other two region in order
collect electrons from the emitter.
Operation of transistor in different regions
 Active region: In this region base emitter junction is forward biased and collector
base junction is reverse biased. For amplification BJT is used in active region.
Vc>Vb>Ve Ve>Vb>Vc

 Cut-off region: In here both emitter base and collector base junctions are reverse
biased. This region is used for switching purpose and transistor is in off condition.
Ve > Vb , Vc > Vb

 Saturation region: In here both base emitter and base collector junctions are
forward biased. This region is used for switching purpose and transistor is in ON
condition.
Vb > Ve , Vb > Vc
Symbol
NPN transistor

PNP transistor

In symbol the arrow indicates the direction current in the active region of transistor.
In NPN transistor current flows from base to emitter on the other hand if you look at the
symbol of PNP transistor current flows from emitter to base terminal.

Working of BJT

Let’s consider an NPN transistor with common emitter configuration in which base emitter
junction is forward biased by a supply voltage Vbb and collector emitter junction is reverse
biased by a supply voltage Vcc. The resistor Rb and Rc connected in series in order to
protect circuit from loading effect.
 The forward bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the
electrons to flow from the emitter to the base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it
consists of very few holes so some of the electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine
with the holes present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal. This constitutes
the base current.

The remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse-biased collector junction to
constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,

The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector current.

Different configuration of transistor

We know that generally the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and
collector. But in the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and
another two terminals for output. To overcome these problems, we use one terminal as
common for both input and output actions.

Using this property, we construct the circuits and these structures are called transistor
configurations. Generally, there are three different configurations of transistors and they
are common base (CB) configuration, common collector (CC) configuration and common
emitter (CE) configuration.

The behaviour of these three different configurations of transistors with respect to gain is
given below.

 Common Base (CB) Configuration: no current gain but voltage gain

 Common Collector (CC) Configuration: current gain but no voltage gain
 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: current gain and voltage gain

Common Base (CB) Configuration

In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output
signals. The configuration name itself indicates the common terminal. Here the input is
applied between the base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is
taken between the base and collector terminals with the base terminal grounded. Here the
input parameters are VEB and IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current
flowing into the emitter terminal must be higher than the base current and collector current
to operate the transistor, therefore the output collector current is less than the input
emitter current.

The current gain is generally equal or less than to unity for this type of configuration.
The input and output signals are in-phase in this configuration. The amplifier circuit
configuration of this type is called as non-inverting amplifier circuit. The construction of this
configuration circuit is difficult because this type has high voltage gain values.

The input characteristics of this configuration are looks like characteristics of

illuminated photo diode while the output characteristics represents a forward biased diode.
This transistor configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance. This type
of configuration has high resistance gain i.e. ratio of output resistance to input resistance is
high. The voltage gain for this configuration of circuit is given below.

AV = Vout/Vin = (IC*RL) / (IE*Rin)

Current gain in common base configuration is given as

α = Output current/Input current

α = IC/IE

The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as
microphone pre amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency
response. The common base transistor circuit is given below.

Input Characteristics
 Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with
constant output voltage. First keep the output voltage V CB constant and vary the input
voltage VEB for different points then at each point record the input current I E value. Repeat
the same process at different output voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot
the graph between IE and VEB parameters. The below figure shows the input characteristics
of common base configuration. The equation to calculate the input resistance R in value is
given below.

Rin = VEB / IE (when VCB is constant)

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between

output current and output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter
current constant and vary the V CB value for different points, now record the I C values at each
point. Repeat the same process at different I E values. Finally, we need to draw the plot
between VCB and IC at constant IE. The below figure shows the output characteristics of
common base configuration. The equation to calculate the output resistance value is given
below.

Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant)

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output
signals. This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the
emitter voltage follows the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These
configurations are widely used in impedance matching applications because of their high
input impedance.

In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region
and the output is taken from the emitter-collector region. Here the input parameters are
VBC and IB and the output parameters are VEC and IE. The common collector configuration
has high input impedance and low output impedance. The input and output signals are in
phase. Here also the emitter current is equal to the sum of collector current and the base
current. Now let us calculate the current gain for this configuration.

Current gain,

Ai = output current/Input current

Ai = IE/IB

Ai = (IC + IB)/IB

Ai = (IC/IB) + 1

Ai = β + 1
 The common collector transistor circuit is shown above. This common collector
configuration is a non-inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for this circuit is less than
unity but it has large current gain because the load resistor in this circuit receives both the
collector and base currents.

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the
common base and common emitter configurations because the input voltage V BC is largely
determined by VEC level. Here,

VEC = VEB + VBC

VEB = VEC – VBC

The input characteristics of a common-collector configuration are obtained between inputs

current IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage
VEC constant at different levels and vary the input voltage VBC for different points and record
the IB values for each point. Now using these values, we need to draw a graph between the
parameters of VBC and IB at constant VEC.
Output Characteristics

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common emitter circuit.
The output characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained between the output
voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. In the operation of common
collector circuit if the base current is zero then the emitter current also becomes zero. As a
result, no current flows through the transistor

If the base current increases then the transistor operates in saturation region and finally
reaches to active region. To plot the graph first we keep the IB at constant value and we will
vary the VEC value for various points, now we need to record the value of IE for each point.
Repeat the same process for different IB values. Now using these values, we need to plot the
graph between the parameters of IE and VCE at constant values of IB. The below figure shows
the output characteristics of common collector.

Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output.
This common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input is applied
between base-emitter region and the output is taken between collector and emitter
terminals. In this configuration the input parameters are V BE and IB and the output
parameters are VCE and IC.

This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor-based

amplifiers. In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current
and the large collector current. i.e. I E = IC + IB. We know that the ratio between collector
current and emitter current gives current gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly
the ratio between collector current and base current gives the current gain beta in common
emitter configuration.

Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.

Current gain (α) = IC/IE

Current gain (β) = IC/IB

Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium
input and output impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But
the output signal has a phase shift of 180 i.e. both the input and output are inverse to each
other.

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between

input current IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE. Keep the output
voltage VCE constant and vary the input voltage V BE for different points, now record the
values of input current at each point. Now using these values, we need to draw a graph
between the values of IB and VBE at constant VCE. The equation to calculate the input
resistance Rin is given below.

Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between

the output current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB. Keep the base
current IB constant and vary the value of output voltage V CE for different points, now note
down the value of collector I C for each point. Plot the graph between the parameter’s I C and
VCE in order to get the output characteristics of common emitter configuration. The equation
to calculate the output resistance from this graph is given below.

Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant)

Configurations of Transistors Summary

The table which gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three
configurations is given above. The BJT transistors have mainly three types of configurations.
They are common-emitter, common-base and common-collector configurations. Among all
these three configurations common-emitter configuration is mostly used type.

Transistor Biasing

Transistors are one of the largely used semiconductor devices which are used for
wide variety of applications including amplification and switching. However to achieve these
functions satisfactorily, transistor has to be supplied with certain amount of current and/or
voltage. The process of setting these conditions for a transistor circuit is referred to as
Transistor Biasing. This goal can be accomplished by variety of techniques which give rise to
different kinds of biasing circuits.

Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias

The biasing circuit shown by Figure 1 has a base resistor RB connected between the
base and the VCC. Here the base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased by the
voltage drop across RB which is the result of I B flowing through it. From the figure, the
mathematical expression for IB is obtained as

Here the values of VCC and VBE are fixed while the value for RB is constant once the
circuit is designed. This leads to a constant value for I B resulting in a fixed operating point
due to which the circuit is named as fixed base bias. This kind of bias, results in a stability
factor of (β+1) which leads to very poor thermal stability. The reason behind this is the fact
the β-parameter of a transistor is unpredictable and varies up to a large extent even in the
case of transistor with the same model and type. This variation in β results in large changes
in IC which cannot be compensated by any means in the proposed design. Hence it can be
concluded that this kind of β dependent bias is prone to the changes in operating point
brought about by the variations in transistor characteristics and temperature.

However, it is to be noted that fixed base bias is most simple and uses a smaller
number of components. Moreover, it offers the chance for the user to change the operating
point anywhere in the active region just by changing the value of R B in the design. Further it
offers no load on the source as there is no resistor across base-emitter junction. Due to
these factors this kind of biasing is used in switching applications and to achieve automatic
gain control in the transistors. Here, the expressions for other voltages and currents are
given as

Collector Feedback Bias

In this circuit (Figure 2), the base resistor RB is connected across the collector and the base
terminals of the transistor. This means that the base voltage, VB and the collector voltage, VC
are inter-dependent due to the fact that

Where,

From these equations, it is seen that an increase in IC decreases VC which results in a

reduced IB, automatically reducing IC. This indicates that, for this type of biasing network, the
Q-point (operating point) remains fixed irrespective of the variations in the load current
causing the transistor to always be in its active region regardless of β value. Further this
circuit is also referred to as self-biasing negative feedback circuit as the feedback is from
output to input via RB. This kind of relatively simple bias has a stability factor which is less
than (β+1), which results in a better stability when compared to fixed bias. However the
action of reducing the collector current by base current leads to a reduced amplifier gain.
Here, other voltages and currents are expressed as

Dual Feedback Bias

Figure 3 shows a dual feedback bias network which is an improvisation over the collector
feedback biasing circuit as it has an additional resistor R1 which increases the stability of the
circuit. This is because an increase in the current flow through the base resistors results in a
network which is resistant to the variations in the values of β.

Here,
Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistor

As evident from Figure 4, this biasing circuit is nothing but a fixed bias network with an
additional emitter resistor, RE. Here, if IC rises due to an increase in temperature, then the IE
also increases which further increases the voltage drop across RE. This results in the
reduction of VC, causing a decrease in IB which in turn brings IC back to its normal value.
Thus, this kind of biasing network is seen to offer better stability when compared to fixed
base bias network. However, the presence of RE reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier as
it results in unwanted AC feedback. In this circuit, the mathematical equations for different
voltages and current are given as

Emitter Bias

This biasing network (Figure 5) uses two supply voltages, VCC and VEE, which are equal but
opposite in polarity. Here VEE forward biases the base-emitter junction through RE while VCC
reverse biases the collector-base junction. Moreover

In this kind of biasing, IC can be made independent of both β and VBE by choosing RE >> RB/β
and VEE >> VBE, respectively; which results in a stable operating point.

Emitter Feedback Bias

This kind of self-emitter bias (Figure 6) employs both collector-base feedback as well as
emitter feedback to result in a higher stability. This is because, here, the emitter-base
junction is forward biased by the voltage drop occurring across the emitter resistor, R E due
to the flow of emitter current, IE. An increase in the temperature increases IC, causing an
increase in the emitter current, IE. This also leads to an increase in the voltage drop across RE
which decreases the collector voltage, VC and in turn IB, thereby bringing back IC to its
original value.

However this results in a reduced output gain due to the presence of a degenerative
feedback which is nothing but an unwanted AC feedback, wherein the amount of current
flowing through the feedback resistor is determined by the value of the collector voltage, V C.
This effect can be compensated by using a large bypass capacitor across the emitter resistor,
RE. The expressions corresponding to various voltages and currents in this low-power-
supply-voltage suitable biasing network are given as
Voltage Divider Bias

This type of biasing network (Figure 7) employs a voltage divider formed by the
resistors R1 and R2 to bias the transistor. This means that here the voltage developed across
R2 will be the base voltage of the transistor which forward biases its base-emitter junction.
In general, the current through R2 will be fixed to be 10 times required base current, IB (i.e. I2
= 10IB). This is done to avoid its effect on the voltage divider current or on the changes in β.
Further, from the circuit, one gets

In this kind of biasing, IC is resistant to the changes in both β as well as VBE which results in a
stability factor of 1 (theoretically), the maximum possible thermal stability. This is because,
as IC increases due to a rise in temperature, IE also increases causing an increase in the
emitter voltage VE which in turn reduces the base-emitter voltage, VBE. This results in the
decrease of base current IB which restores IC to its original value. The higher stability offered
by this biasing circuit makes it to be most widely used inspite of providing a decreased
amplifier gain due to the presence of RE.