Electric Drives

ELECTRIC DRIVES IUH - Mechatronic Dept
MODELING OF DC MACHINES
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

















INTRODUCTION
 Induction motors (IM) most widely used
 IM (particularly squirrel-cage type) compared to
DC motors
 Rugged
 Lower maintenance
 More reliable
 Lower cost, weight, volume
 Higher efficiency
 Able to operate in dirty and explosive environments
INTRODUCTION
+ IM mainly used in applications requiring

constant speed
+ Conventional speed control of IM expensive or
highly inefficient
+ IM drives replacing DC drives in a number of
variable speed applications due to
+ Improvement in power devices capabilities
+ Reduction in cost of power devices
INDUCTION MOTOR
 Stator
 balanced 3-phase winding a
 distributed winding – coils
distributed in several slots c’
 produces a rotating magnetic b’
field
 Rotor
 usually squirrel cage
 conductors shorted by end c
rings b
 Rotating magnetic field induces a’
voltages in the rotor
 Induced rotor voltages have
same number of phases and
poles as in stator winding
INDUCTION MOTOR
INDUCTION MOTOR
Stator supplied by balanced 3-phase AC source (frequency f Hz or 
rads/sec )
Field produced rotates at synchronous speed s rad/sec
2 4 120 (1)
s    f ns  f
P P P
where P = number of poles
Rotor rotates at speed m rad/sec (electrical speed r = (P/2) m)
Slip speed, sl – relative speed
between rotating field and rotor  sl   s  m (2)
Slip, s – ratio between slip speed  s  m

s
and synchronous speed s (3)
INDUCTION MOTOR
Relative speed between stator rotating field and rotor induces:
emf in stator winding (known as back emf), E1
emf in rotor winding, Er
Frequency of rotor voltages and currents: f r  sf (4)
Torque produced due to interaction between induced rotor currents

and stator field
Stator voltage equation: Vs  Rs I s  j 2πf Lls I s  E1
Rotor voltage equation: sEr  Rr I r  js 2πf Llr I r

R
Er   r  I r  j 2πf Llr I r
 s
INDUCTION MOTOR
E1 and Er related by turns ratio aeff
Lls Is Llr Ir
Rs
+ + +
Vs Lm E1 Er Rr/s
Im
– – –
Rotor parameters can be referred to the stator side :

Ir
E1  aeff Er I r' 
aeff
Rr'  aeff
2
Rr L'r  aeff
2
Lr
INDUCTION MOTOR Per Phase Equivalent Circuit
Is Lls Llr’ Ir ’
Rs
+ +
Lm Rr’/s
Vs E1
Im
– –
Rs – stator winding resistance

Rr’ – referred rotor winding resistance
Lls – stator leakage inductance
Llr’ – referred rotor leakage inductance
Lm – mutual inductance
Ir’ – referred rotor current
38
INDUCTION MOTOR Power Flow

Airgap Converted
Power Mechanical
Power Pconv
Pag Power
Rr' P  3I ' 2 R '  1  s  Pout  TLm
'2
Electrical Pag  3I r conv r r 
Power s  s 
Pin 
3VT I L cos
Rotational losses Prot

Rotor (Friction and windage, core and Note:
Stator Copper stray losses)
Copper Loss (RCL) Pconv  1  s Pag
Loss (SCL)
'2
2 PRCL  3I Rr' PRCL  sPag
PSCL  3I Rs
s
r
39
INDUCTION MOTOR Torque Equation

Motor induced torque is related to converted power by:
Pconv
Te 
m (5)
Since Pconv  1  s Pag and r  1  s s , hence

'2
Pag3I Rr' r
Te   (6)
s s s
Substituting for Ir’ from the equivalent circuit:
2
3Rr' Vs
Te  2
s s  Rr'  2
 (7)
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
 s  
INDUCTION MOTOR T- Characteristic
T-
characteristic
of IM during
generating,
motoring and
braking

Te  Maximum torque or pullout
Pull out torque occurs when slip is:
Torque
(Tmax)
Rr'
smax  
Rs   X ls  X lr  (8)
2 2
Trated
 The pullout torque can be
calculated using:
r
2
0 smax rated 3 Vs
s Tmax 
s 2 s  R  R 2   X  X 2 
1 0  s s ls lr 
(9)

Linear region of operation
Te (small s)
Pull out
Torque
 Te  s
(Tmax)  High efficiency
 Pout = Pconv – Prot
Trated  Pconv = (1- s )Pag
 Stable motor operation
s
0 smax rated r
s
INDUCTION MOTOR NEMA Classification of IM

 NEMA = National Electrical
Manufacturers Association
 Classification based on T-
characteristics
 Class A & B – general
purpose
 Class C – higher Tstart (eg:
driving compressor pumps)
 Class D – provide high Tstart
s and wide stable speed
range but low efficiency
INDUCTION MOTOR NEMA Classification of IM

Small motors can be started ‘direct-on-line’
Large motors require assisted starting
Starting arrangement chosen based on:
Load requirements
Nature of supply (weak or stiff)
Some features of starting mechanism:
Motor Tstart must overcome friction, load torque and inertia of motor-load
system within a prescribed time limit
Istart magnitude ( 5-7 times I rated) must not cause
machine overheating
Dip in source voltage beyond permissible value
INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING





INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

Scalar Control - control of induction machine based on
steady-state model (per phase SS equivalent circuit)
Is Lls Llr’ Ir ’
Rs
+ +
Lm Rr’/s
Vs E1
Im
– –

Te
Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) Te (Te=TL) determines the
steady –state speed
TL
Trated
r
sm rotors
s rated

Te
Pull out
TL
Trated
What if the load must

be operated here?
r
sm rotors
rated
s rotor’

Te
Pull out
TL
Trated
What if the load must

be operated here?
r
sm rotors
rated
s rotor’ Requires speed
control of motor

Given a load T– characteristic, the steady-state speed can be
changed by altering the T– curve of the motor
' 2
3R r Vs
Te 
ss  ' 2 
Rr  2
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
 s  
2 4
s    f
P P
1 Pole Changing
55

Te 
3R '
r Vs
2
2 Varying voltage
(amplitude)
ss  ' 2 
Rr  2
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
 s  
2 4
s    f
P P
1 Pole Changing
56

Te 
3R '
r Vs
2
2 Varying voltage
(amplitude)
ss  ' 2 
Rr  2
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
 s  
2 4
s    f 3 Varying line
frequency
P P
1 Pole Changing
57

Pole Changing
 Machines must be specially manufactured (i.e. called pole changing
motors or multi-speed motors)
 Need special arrangement of stator windings
 Only used with squirrel-cage motors
 Because number of poles induced in squirrel cage rotor will follow
number of stator poles
 Two methods:
 Multiple stator windings
 stator has more than one set of 3-phase windings
 only energize one set at a time
 simple, expensive
 Consequent poles
 Discrete step change in speed

Variable-Voltage (amplitude), Constant
Frequency
 Controlled using:
 Transformer (rarely used)
 Thyristor voltage controller
 Thyristors connected in anti-parallel
motor can be star or delta connected
 Voltage control by firing angle control
(gating signals are synchronized to
phase voltages and are spaced at 60
intervals)
 Only for operations in Quadrant 1 and
Quadrant 3 (requires reversal of
phase sequence)
 Also used for soft start of motors

Variable-Voltage (amplitude), Constant Frequency
 Voltage can only be reduced from rated Vs (i.e. 0 < Vs ≤ Vs,rated)
 From torque equation, Te  Vs2
 When Vs , Te and speed reduces.
 If terminal voltage is reduced to bVs, (i.e. Vs = bVs,rated) :
Te 
3R '
r 
bVs 
2
s s  ' 2 
Rr  2
 Rs     X ls  X lr  
 s  
Note: b  1

Variable-Voltage (amplitude),
Constant Frequency
 Suitable for applications where
torque demand reduces with
speed
(eg: fan and pump drives where
TL  m2)
 Suitable for NEMA Class D
(high-slip, high Rr’) type motors
 High rotor copper loss, low
efficiency motors
 Get appreciable speed range Practical
speed range

Variable Voltage (amplitude),
Constant Frequency
 Disadvantages:
 limited speed range  when
applied to Class B (low-slip) motors
 Excessive stator currents at low
speeds  high copper losses
 Distorted phase current in machine
and line (harmonics introduced by
thyristor switching)
 Poor line power factor
(power factor proportional to firing
angle)
 Hence, only used on low-power,
appliance-type motors where
efficiency is not important
 e.g. small fan or pumps drives

Variable Frequency
 Speed control above rated (base) speed
 Requires the use of PWM inverters to control frequency of motor
 Frequency increased (i.e. s increased)
 Stator voltage held constant at rated value
 Airgap flux and rotor current decreases
 Developed torque
decreases
Te  (1/s)
 For control below
base speed –
use Constant
Volts/Hz method

Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control
 Airgap flux in the motor is related to the induced stator voltage E1 :
E1 Vs Assuming small voltage drop
ag   across Rs and Lls
f f
 For below base speed operation:
 Frequency reduced at rated Vs - airgap flux saturates
(f  ,ag  and enters saturation region oh B-H curve):
- excessive stator currents flow
- distortion of flux wave
- increase in core losses and stator copper loss
 Hence, keep ag = rated flux
 Stator voltage Vs must be reduced proportional to reduction in f
(i.e. maintaining Vs / f ratio)

Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control 2
 Max. torque remains almost
E1 Vs Vs
ag   Tmax 
constant f f s
 For low speed operation:
 can’t ignore voltage drop across Rs
and Lls (i.e. E1  Vs)
 poor torque capability
(i.e. torque decreased at low speeds
shown by dotted lines)
 stator voltage must be boosted – to
compensate for voltage drop at Rs
and Lls and maintain constant ag
 For above base speed operation (f
> frated):
 stator voltage maintained at rated
value
 Same as Variable Frequency control
(refer to slide 13)

For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:
fs = Kfs,rated  s = Ks,rated (1)
(Note: in (1) , speed is given as mechanical speed)
 KVs ,rated , when f s  f s ,rated

Stator voltage: Vs   (2)
 Vs , rated , when f s  f s ,rated
Voltage-to-frequency ratio = d = constant:
Vs,rated
d
 s,rated (3)

 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:
Hence, the torque produced by the motor:
' 2
3R r Vs
Te  (4)
s s  ' 2 
Rr  2
 Rs    K  X ls  X lr  
2
 s  
where s and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2)

respectively.

 For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:
The slip for maximum torque is:
Rr'
smax  
2 2
Rs  K 2  X ls  X lr 
(5)
 The maximum torque is then given by:
2
3 Vs
Tmax 
2 s  R  R 2  K 2  X  X 2  (6)
 s s ls lr 
where s and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2) respectively.


Constant
Torque Area Field Weakening Mode (f > frated)
Rated (Base) (below base speed)
frequency • Reduced flux (since Vs is constant)
• Torque reduces
Constant Power Area
(above base speed)
Note:
Operation restricted
between synchronous
speed and Tmax for
motoring and braking
regions, i.e. in the
linear region of the
torque-speed curve.

Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control ( Open Loop)

Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control ( Open Loop)
Open-loop Constant Volts/Hz Drive with Slip Compensation
- Slip speed is estimated and added to the reference speed r*
Vdc = Vd Idc
Slip
Compensator
sl
r*
Note: e= s = synchronous speed

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ELECTRIC DRIVES IUH - Mechatronic Dept

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

+ IM mainly used in applications requiring

Slip, s – ratio between slip speed  s  m

Torque produced due to interaction between induced rotor currents

Rotor voltage equation: sEr  Rr I r  js 2πf Llr I r

Rotor parameters can be referred to the stator side :

INDUCTION MOTOR Per Phase Equivalent Circuit

Rs – stator winding resistance

INDUCTION MOTOR Power Flow

Rotational losses Prot

INDUCTION MOTOR Torque Equation

Since Pconv  1  s Pag and r  1  s s , hence

INDUCTION MOTOR T- Characteristic

INDUCTION MOTOR T- Characteristic

INDUCTION MOTOR T- Characteristic

INDUCTION MOTOR NEMA Classification of IM

INDUCTION MOTOR NEMA Classification of IM

INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING

INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING

INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING

INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING

INDUCTION MOTOR - STARTING

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

What if the load must

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

What if the load must

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL

 KVs ,rated , when f s  f s ,rated

INDUCTION MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL